7.1.2 Observational Techniques

Types of observation

Type of observation

Evaluation

Naturalistic Observation – naturalistic takes place in the setting where the target behaviour would usually occur. All aspects of the environment are free to vary. Controlled Observation • In a controlled observation, there is some control over variables, including manipulating variables to observe effects and also control extraneous variables. Covert Observation – Covert observations are those in which the participants are unaware they are the focus of the study and their behaviour is observed in secret. Overt Observations – participants are aware, they are being observed and have given their informed consent beforehand. Participant Observation – where the researcher becomes part of the group, they are studying to produce a first-hand account. Non-Participant Observations – when the researcher remains separate from those they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner.

High external validity as findings can be applied to everyday life as behaviour is studied in an environment where it could naturally occur. Lack of control makes replication difficult and there may be many uncontrolled extraneous variables that make it difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour. Controlled Observations may produce findings that cannot be readily applied to real-life settings. Extraneous variables may be less of a factor, so replication of the study becomes easier. Covert observations mean the problem of participant reactivity is removed as they are not aware, they are being observed and behaviour is natural. Increases validity. However, ethics must be questioned as people may not want their behaviours written down. Overt observations are more ethically acceptable, but participants may change their behaviour. Participant observations allow the researcher to experience a situation, giving increased insight into the lives of those studies and increasing validity. However, may lose objectivity and identify strongly with those studied. Non-participant observations allow the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from participants. However, may lose the valuable insight gained from participant observations as they are too far removed from those being studied. • In all observations, it is not possible to establish cause and effect.

Issues in the design of observations

Observational design

Evaluation

Structured Observations – allow a researcher to quantify their observations using a pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods. Unstructured Observations – write down everything they see and produce rich detailed accounts of behaviour. Appropriate when observations are small in scale and require few participants. Behavioural Categories – break the target behaviour into behavioural categories. Target behaviours should be precisely defined and made observational and measurable. Before the observation begins, the researcher should ensure that they have included all how the target behaviour may occur within their behavioural checklist. Sampling Methods – continuous recording of behaviour is a key feature of unstructured observations in which all instances of a target behaviour are recorded. Event sampling involves counting the number of times a behaviour occurs in a target individual or group. Time sampling involves recording behaviour within a pre-established timeframe.

Structured observations involving the use of behavioural categories make the recording of data easier and more systematic. Data produced is likely to be numerical (quantitative) so analysing and comparing behaviour is more straightforward. Unstructured interviews produce qualitative data, rich in detail. May be a greater risk of observer bias and significant behaviours only may be recorded. The researcher may only record behaviours that 'catch their eye' Behavioural Categories – can make data collection more structured and objective but categories must be as clear and ambiguous as possible. They must also be observable, measurable, and self-evident so should not require further interpretation. Should also ensure that all forms of target behaviour are included. Categories should be exclusive and not overlap. Sampling Methods – event sampling is useful when the target behaviour or event happens infrequently and could be missed if time sampling is used. However, if the specified event is too complex, important details could be overlooked if using event sampling. Time sampling is effective in reducing the number of observations to be made. However, the behaviour sampled may be unrepresentative.

Inter-observer reliability

It is always recommended that researchers do not conduct studies alone as single observers may miss important details or only record certain events that confirm their hypothesis. This introduces bias into the research process.

To make data more objective and unbiased, observations should be carried out by at least two researchers. It is vital that this pair of researchers are consistent in their judgements and that the data they record is the same or similar – such observers must be trained to establish inter-observer reliability.

• Observers are to familiarise themselves with the selected behavioural categories
• Observe the same behaviour, at the same time (as part of a pilot study)
• Compare their data and discuss any differences in interpretations
• Analyse data from the study. Inter-observer reliability is calculated by correlating each pair of observations made and an overall figure is produced.