9.5.1 Explaining Parasocial Relationships

Overview of Parasocial Relationships (PSRs)

Parasocial Relationships (PSRs) are one-sided relationships where one person invests considerable emotional energy, interest, and time in another person who is completely unaware of their existence. These relationships typically develop with celebrities, as the media creates the illusion of a face-to-face relationship. Individuals may form PSRs due to a lack of real relationships in their lives, using these connections to fill a void of loneliness. PSRs can be appealing because they make few demands and pose no risk of criticism or rejection.

However, they can lead to ritualistic media consumption and, in some cases, individuals may attempt to communicate with the celebrity, purchase merchandise, or send fan mail, becoming more disconnected from the real world.

Levels of Parasocial Relationships

McCutcheon et al. developed the Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS), used in a large survey by Maltby to identify three levels of parasocial relationships:

• Entertainment-Social: The least intense level, where fans are attracted to their favourite celebrity and engage in watching or reading about them for entertainment and gossip.
• Intense-Personal: A more intermediate level, reflecting greater personal involvement with a celebrity, marked by intensive and compulsive feelings.
• Borderline Pathological: The most extreme level, characterised by uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours, such as spending significant money on related objects or being willing to perform illegal acts at the celebrity's request.

Absorption-Addiction Model

McCutcheon et al. proposed the Absorption-Addiction Model to explain why people form parasocial relationships. This model suggests that individuals may develop PSRs due to deficiencies in their own lives, such as a weak sense of self-identity, lack of fulfilment, or psychological maladjustment. A PSR allows these individuals to "escape from reality" and find fulfilment that they cannot achieve in real life.

• Absorption: The individual seeks fulfilment through celebrity worship by focusing their attention on the celebrity, becoming preoccupied with their existence, and identifying with them.
• Addiction: The need to sustain the relationship leads the individual to feel a stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity, which may result in more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking. Lange et al. suggest that for some adolescents, an introverted nature, difficult social circumstances, and a lack of meaningful relationships may drive them to become increasingly absorbed by celebrity lives. As this absorption increases, the individual may progress to higher levels of parasocial relationships, which can become addictive. The model predicts an association between poorer psychological health and the strength of parasocial relationships.

Attachment Theory

Attachment Theory posits that the types of attachment individuals form with caregivers in infancy can influence their relationships later in life. Insecure-resistant attachment types are most likely to form parasocial relationships because they seek close emotional connections without the risk of rejection. Bartholomew and Horowitz proposed a model of adult attachment styles, linking the "pre-occupied" attachment style to celebrity stalking. Individuals with this attachment style have a negative self-model and a positive other model, leading them to actively seek approval and validation from others, including celebrities.

Evaluation

Support for the Absorption-Addiction Model

Meloy's Research:

• Point: Meloy provides evidence supporting the Absorption-Addiction Model.
• Evidence: Meloy reported that stalkers often have a history of failed sexual relationships and are typically not in a relationship at the time of stalking.
• Explanation: This suggests an association between poor psychological health and the intensity of parasocial relationships, supporting the Absorption-Addiction Model.

Contradictory Evidence for the Absorption-Addiction Model

Schiappa and Sood & Rogers' Findings:

• Point: There is evidence that contradicts the Absorption-Addiction Model.
• Evidence: Schiappa et al.'s meta-analysis found that loneliness was not a predictor of parasocial relationship formation, while Sood & Rogers found that socially active and motivated individuals were more likely to engage in parasocial relationships.
• Explanation: This challenges the Absorption-Addiction Model's assumption that people pursue parasocial relationships due to deficits in their own lives, indicating that this is not always the case.

Support for Attachment Theory

Tonin's Research:

• Point: Tonin provides evidence supporting the idea that celebrity stalking can be explained by abnormal attachment.
• Evidence: Tonin measured stalkers' retrospective childhood attachment styles and current adult attachment using self-report measures. The study found that stalkers had significantly more insecure attachment styles compared to non-stalkers.
• Explanation: This supports Attachment Theory, suggesting that individuals with insecure-resistant attachment styles may turn to celebrities to satisfy unmet relational needs from childhood.

Methodological Concerns with Attachment Theory Research

Critique of Tonin's Study:

• Point: Tonin's study has methodological weaknesses due to its reliance on self-report measures.
• Evidence: Participants may have provided socially desirable responses, potentially misrepresenting their childhood attachment styles to present themselves more favourably.
• Explanation: This could lower the internal validity of the findings, making the attachment explanation for parasocial relationships less reliable.

Contradictory Evidence for Attachment Theory

McCutcheon's Research:

• Point: McCutcheon provides evidence that challenges Attachment Theory.
• Evidence: McCutcheon measured attachment types and celebrity-related attitudes in 299 participants and found that those with insecure attachments were no more likely to form parasocial relationships than those with secure attachments.
• Explanation: This suggests that attachment style may not be a significant factor in the formation of parasocial relationships, contradicting Attachment Theory.

Comparison of Absorption-Addiction and Attachment Theory

When evaluating parasocial relationships, it is useful to compare the Absorption-Addiction Model and Attachment Theory. While both theories offer insights into why people form these relationships, the Absorption-Addiction Model focuses more on deficiencies in an individual's life, whereas Attachment Theory emphasizes the influence of early attachment styles. Each theory has its strengths and limitations, and the evidence supporting them varies, indicating that parasocial relationships are complex phenomena that may be influenced by multiple factors.