Society, Economy and Foreign Relations

Society

During the Tudor period, monarchs had no army and police force thus they recognised the importance of the nobility and gentry to build control in the local government. When there was disorder at a local level, the nobility and gentry in that locality could handle it instead of the king.

The nobility was a small but powerful minority in English society, who held roughly 10% of the land available for cultivation. The highest titles below the king (duke, viscount, earl), as well as the advisers and military leaders of the monarch, came from these families. Below them were the gentry, who were made up of knights and esquires. They also had military assignments and appointments in the local government. Like the nobility, they held estates, albeit less extensive.

Rich merchants were men of trade and enterprise who lived in cities. Some of them were involved in the cloth trade whilst some were investors in the exploration of new trading routes.

Yeomen were wealthy farmers who tended to own their land while artisans were skilled craftsmen in towns or larger villages.

Tenant farmers were below the yeomanry and they resided on the land owned by a landlord. Many tenant farmers became wealthy and had a substantial number of labourers under them.

Servants were farmers who worked on the land of the landlord to earn wages while the unemployed were people without masters who roamed the countryside.

What changed in English society during Henry VIII**'s rule?**

The Nobility

• The nobility had limited control but Henry VIII allowed them to be re-established in the early years of his reign.
• He relied on them to provide fighting men for his military campaign.
• He asserted his power over the nobility with the executions for treason of the Yorkists Duke of Buckingham (1521), Henry Pole and Henry Courtenay (1538) at the cost of losing control of the regions held by these men.
• Due to natural wastage, and the dying out of old noble families, the king created new peers in local communities, which affected the relations in those localities.

The Gentry

• The rank of new gentlemen increased after gaining profits from the reselling of monastic lands associated with the Reformation and enclosures.
• Some of these new gentlemen were crown administrators, Justices of the Peace, merchants, yeomen and artisans.
• Unlike the nobility, these men often disregarded the customary rights of their local communities for profit.

The Commoners

• The living standards of the commoners, the groups below the nobility and gentry, worsened due to inflation, enclosure and heavy taxation.
• The gap between the rich and the poor became more obvious.

Regional Issues

Wales

Initially, reform was not needed in the government of Wales, but some of the remaining Marcher lords threatened Henry VIII. Cromwell was tasked to create a solution to this perceived threat. Cromwell's solution was the annexation of Wales and other significant changes through passing the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542.

Some changes brought by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542

• Five new counties were established on Welsh lands.
• Wales elected members to the English Parliament.
• A sheriff was appointed in every county, and other county officers as in England.
• Justices of the Peace were introduced, nine for every county.

Power of Palatinates

Another regional issue that was addressed by Henry VIII was the power of Palatinates, which were areas ruled by a hereditary nobleman enjoying special authority and autonomy from the rest of the kingdom. Lancashire, Cheshire and Durham were Palatinates but Durham was the only county left ruled over by a Catholic Bishop. Through the Act of Resuming Liberties to the Crown in 1536, the level of independence of the bishop was reduced but not completely taken away.

Borders

The Anglo-Scottish Border

The Anglo-Scottish Border was a problematic area for Henry VIII. Due to its location and reputation for lawlessness and violence, it was difficult to police and could be remote in the winter months. To deal with these problems, the border was split into six marches, three on each side, each under the jurisdiction of a warden to administer justice and uphold the law.

The Anglo-Welsh Border

The Anglo-Welsh border came under the jurisdiction of the Council of Wales and the Marches. This offered relatively cheap and local access to law, which was beneficial to the areas under the jurisdiction.

The Council of the North

• A rebellion that broke out in the North in 1536 led to the re-establishment of the Council of the North in 1537.
• The 1536 rebellion, a resistance to the Reformation and the dissolution of the monasteries posed problems of governance.
• Henry VIII and Cromwell allowed the re-creation of the council as a permanent body based in York responsible for the law and order in the north.

Social Impact of the Dissolution of Monasteries

Beneficiaries of the Dissolution

• The Crown and Henry VIII's ministers were the primary winners since they no longer fell under the Church of Rome and the Pope's authority.
• With the dissolution of monasteries, Henry VIII got rid of all opposition.
• Noblemen also got a great advantage out of this situation: the king rewarded them with land that they could either sell or farm. Either way, they had the opportunity to increase their income.

Losers of the Dissolution

• Monks and nuns lost their homes and became unemployed.
• Since monasteries helped the local community, the people who were poor and sick had nowhere to go.
• Monasteries were also known to rent parts of their land. When Henry VIII dissolved them and handed the land over to nobles, rents suddenly increased, and some people were evicted.

Economic Development

Increase in Population

1. Food shortage
2. Low wages (labour was cheap)
3. Wealthy farmers and landowners benefitted from increased prices of goods The rich became richer and the poor poorer but the state could do little to combat these issues.

Trade

• During the reign of Henry VIII, English trade flourished with woollen cloth exports almost doubling.
• London was the export hub of cloth to the continent through Antwerp in the Low Countries.
• The wool trade depended on domestic industry with families taking care of the processing of wool and small-scale industries handling the fulling and dyeing.
• Cornish tin and coal mining also became important exports.
• However, trade was disrupted by war and foreign policy, specifically by a trade embargo during England's war on the Holy Roman Empire in 1528.
• This led to the unintended consequences of a fall in exports and unemployment in England.

Exploration

• Expeditions to the New World were not included in the aims of Henry VIII.
• Whilst the King was occupied with plans to attain military glory and to secure his dynasty and succession, Spain and Portugal were building a large empire in the New World through explorations.
• Apart from a few voyages by Sebastian Cabot and Robert Thorne around Iceland and Newfoundland, exploration did little to improve trade and economy during the period.

Robert Thorne's map in 1527

Depression

• Poor harvests affected the economy in 1520-21 and 1527-29.
• Food prices almost doubled causing problems for urban workers who lived off wages.
• Urban poverty and unemployment in rural industries were real issues at the time.
• Furthermore, the debasement of the coinage had a devastating effect on the living standards due to the rise in inflation, although it led to a short-term artificial boom in the 1540s.

Foreign Relations

By 1538, the King was in a weak position against powerful opponents who united against England. His offers of marriage alliance to various princesses abroad were fruitless due to his worsening reputation. His position became weaker when a papal order supported his deposition from the English throne. In response to this Catholic threat, Henry developed his navy and ordered the modernisation of all coastal defences