The power of Saladin, 1169-92

What you need to know - The power of Saladin, 1169-92: consolidation of Saladin's power in Egypt and Syria, 1169-84; the attack on Tiberias, the battle of Hattin and fall of Jerusalem to Saladin 1187; the siege of Acre and the battle of Arsuf, 1189-91; Saladin's success in keeping Muslim control of Jerusalem in 1192.

Saladin

Born as Salah ad-Din in present-day Iraq, Saladin's military expeditions were under the tutelage of his uncle, Shirkuh. At the Battle of al-Babein, Saladin commanded the right wing of the Zengid army. Despite Nur ad-Din's proposal of appointing a Turk as vizier of Egypt, the caliph, Al-Adid invested the Kurd, Saladin. In the early months of being a vizier, Saladin survived an assassination and subdued a revolt. Before the end of 1169, Saladin and Nur ad-Din's forces defeated the crusader Byzantine troops near Damietta. The following year, Saladin was pressured by al-Mustanjid, the Abbasid caliph from Baghdad, to depose Al-Adid.

Portrait of Saladin

While strengthening his rule in Egypt, Saladin oversaw the promotion of Sunni Islam. He also granted many of his family members with high-ranking positions in the government.

1171

1174

In June 1171, Nur ad-Din pressured Saladin to reestablish the Abbasid Caliphate in Egypt. This was followed by the killing of several Egyptian emirs and later in September, the caliph.

In May, Nur ad-Din died after falling ill. He was succeeded by his minor son, as-Salih. Nur ad-Din's death left Saladin with political independence. After months, Saladin besieged the city of Damascus and installed his brother, Tughtakin ibn Ayyub as governor.

1173

1175

Nur ad-Din became Saladin's teacher and friend. After capturing Aswan and Ibrim, Saladin sent 60,000 dinars, jewels and an elephant to Nur ad-Din.

A presumed portrait of Saladin by Andre Thevet

To have a counter-propaganda, Saladin's army defeated the Crusaders in Hama and Homs. Meanwhile, the Zengid leaders were angered by Saladin's aggression. The Zengids insisted Saladin return to Egypt. The battle ended in Saladin's favour.

Saladin's forces soon captured Hama and Aleppo. In response, Gumushtingin, emir of Damascus ordered the assassination of Saladin in May 1175, but failed. Saladin's arrival in Syria and Jazira was faced with a propaganda war for capturing his master's territories.

1177

1180

1182

After his short return to Egypt, Saladin set out for Palestine. In response to the crusaders' forays into Damascus, Saladin marched his army to Ascalon. In the same year, Baldwin IV's troops, including the Knights Templar, defeated the Ayyubids in a surprise attack near Ramla.

After a series of encounters, Baldwin IV of Jerusalem proposed a truce to Saladin, which he accepted. It is believed that bad harvests were behind the truce.

In May, Saladin and half of his Egyptian Ayyubid troops left for Syria. Within this year, he captured the Jazira region, Edess, Sauj, Raqqa, Nusaybin and Qirqesiya. In June, the emirs of Aleppo pledged service to Saladin. In November 1182, Saladin arrived in Mosul.

After a failed mediation, Saladin sieged the fortified and large city of Mosul. The following year, Saladin received news from Egypt that the crusaders led by Raynald de Chatillon were raiding towns near the Gulf of Aqaba. In response, Saladin attacked Beirut. The crusaders threatened him with an attack on Mecca and Medina.

•                                                **Map showing the conquest of Saladin***
  

Attack on Tiberias, Battle of Hattin, 1187

While in a truce with Saladin, Raynald of Chatillon raided a Muslim caravan. In response, Saladin attacked Tiberia, where Eschiva, wife of Raymond III, was staying. With Gerard de Ridefort's advice, Guy Lusignan, now ruler of Jerusalem with his wife, Sibylla, gathered his crusading army to retake Tiberias.

Estimates suggest that the crusader army was around 18,000 to 20,000, while Saladin had around 40,000 men. With donations from Henry II of England, Guy Lusignan did not hesitate to push through with the attack.

Within a day of besieging the fortress of Tiberias, the towers collapsed. As planned by Saladin, the crusader army led by Guy left La Saphorie, an important strong position. At this time, Saladin believed that the Crusaders could be easily defeated in the field rather than by besieging the fortifications.

On 3 July, the crusaders marching towards Tiberias were attacked by Muslim archers. As they passed the Springs of Turan, access to water became insufficient. Saladin's forces strategically positioned themselves in between the crusader army and water source. As a result, the Crusaders were forced to camp on the arid plateau near Meskenah. The Muslims even set fires to further dry the throats of the Crusaders. The following day, the crusader camp was filled with smoke. From there, Saladin's mounted archers gained the advantage. From their impossible position, Raymond managed to reach Tyre.

Interpretation of Saladin accepting the surrender of Guy of Lusignan

At the end of the battle, Guy of Lusignan, Raynald de Chatillon, Gerard de Ridefort, William V of Montferrat, Humphrey IV of Toron, Hugh of Gibelet, Hugh of Jabala, Plivain of Botron and several barons of the kingdom were held captive by the Muslims. Because he broke the truce, Saladin did not spare Raynald. As per Guy, Saladin mentioned that "kings do not kill kings".

Fall of Jerusalem to Saladin 1187

Following the Crusaders' defeat at the Battle of Hattin, Balian of Ibelin, who was in Tyre, asked Saladin for a safe passage to Jerusalem to retrieve his family. Saladin granted his request, provided that he would not take up arms. However, when Balian arrived in Jerusalem, he was urged by Patriarch Heraclius and Sibylla to defend the city.

Balian agreed and sent his decision to Saladin at Ascalon. According to chronicler Ibn al-Athir, Saladin still arranged an escort to Balian's family and household to Tripoli. The Muslims regarded Balian as king for being the highest-ranking lord present in Jerusalem.

At that time, the city was only equipped with 14 knights. He created an additional 60 knights. While Saladin was successful in capturing Acre, Jaffa and Caesarea, people in Jerusalem were storing food.

On 20 September, Saladin's forces arrived outside the city of Jerusalem. His troops camped at the Tower of David and the Damascus Gate for six days. After days of assaults, they moved the camp to the Mount of Olives. In addition to archers, Saladin's troops were equipped with siege engines, mangonels, catapults and Greek fire. On 29 September, a portion of the wall collapsed. The crusaders and civilians put their best efforts into pushing the Muslims out of the city. Because of the city's dire situation, Balian rode out to Saladin's camp to offer the surrender.

Balian warned the defenders of Jerusalem that the Muslims would ransack the Holy Places, their families and wealth if they refused to surrender. However, Saladin did not accept Jerusalem's unconditional surrender.

"…Our Lord did not deign to hear the prayers or noise that was made in the city. For the stench of adultery, of disgusting extravagance and of sin against nature would not let their prayers rise to God." - The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade, Trans Peter Edbury

Balian of Ibelin surrendering the city of Jerusalem to Saladin, from Les Passages faits Outremer par les Français contre les Turcs et autres Sarrasins et Maures outremarins, c. 1490

On 2 October, the Crusaders surrendered the city of Jerusalem to Saladin. The following events soon followed:

From the city's treasury, Balian paid 30,000 dinars for the freedom of 7,000 inhabitants who were unable to pay ransom. Those who could pay bought their freedom for 10 dinars (men), five dinars (women) and two dinars (children).

The golden Christian cross over the Dome of Rock was pulled down.

Release of about 3,000 Muslim prisoners or war.

A number of noblewomen including the Byzantine and Jerusalem's queens.

Inhabitants of crusader origin were allowed to leave the city upon paying 10 dinars. Meanwhile, native Christians were permitted to stay in the city with all their possessions. Those men, women and children who were unable to pay ransom were sold into slavery.

After three days of closing the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Saladin ordered its reopening. Despite a few suggestions to destroy the Church, Saladin decided not to. He had no intentions of stopping Christian pilgrimages in the city. Instead of destroying the sites, Saladin ordered the purification of holy sites with rose water.

In addition to Christian pilgrims, the Copts, who were prohibited by the Crusaders from entering Jerusalem, were allowed by Saladin to be in the city without paying fees. Isaac Angelus, the Byzantine emperor, congratulated Saladin on his victory. Moreover, he requested the Muslim ruler to convert all the churches into Orthodox.

Siege of Acre and the Battle of Arsuf, 1189-91

Between 28 August 1189 and 12 July 1191, the siege of Acre was King Guy of Jerusalem's first significant attack against Saladin. In 1188, Saladin released Guy from captivity. While Conrad of Montferrat, who was in Tyre, refused to aid Guy, the latter gathered contingents from William II of Sicily and Ubaldo Lanfranchi, Archbishop of Pisa. After disagreements, Guy and Conrad became allies against Saladin.

While waiting for reinforcements from Europe, Guy and his troops camped outside the city of Acre. In a few days, Danish, Frisian, French, Flemish, German and Armenian troops arrived. By the end of September, the crusader army reached about 32,000 composed of infantry and cavalry.

While the siege continued, news about the arrival of Frederick I boosted the Crusaders' morale. However, on 30 October 1189, the Muslims broke through the Crusaders' sea blockade and reinforced Acre with supplies. By December, an Egyptian fleet re-established control of the port.

In May 1190, Saladin strengthened his army and began launching attacks on Christian camps.

12th-century manuscript depicting the siege of Acre

Saladin's army was composed of Egyptians, Turkestans, Mesopotamians and Syrians. The initial Muslim-Crusader encounter resulted in the death of Grand Master of the Templars, Gerard de Ridefort, Andrew of Brienne, and the capture of Conrad, who was later rescued by Guy.

Manuscript depicting the death of Frederick I or Frederick Barbarossa

The army

By summer, more Christian reinforcements arrived. Frederick VI of Swabia replaced his father, Frederick I, who died while crossing the Saleph River. Despite having a huge number of troops, living in crusader camps became difficult. Through Saladin's containment, supply in Christian camps was limited. Food was scarce, water was contaminated, and disease quickly spread.

While Saladin's army was growing, leaders in Christian camps succumbed to diseases. In 1191, Theobald of Blois, Stephen of Sancerre, and Frederick of Swabia died of diseases. By December, the Crusaders' attempt to breach the city walls failed. In February 1192, Saladin succeeded in replacing his exhausted defenders.

Phillip II of Frances' arrival in Acre

In April, Philip II of France arrived in Acre, followed by Richard II of England in June. While Richard I was ill, Philip II began attacking Acre with ballistas and engines. By July, Richard I launched his own siege engines, the mangonels. Despite having enormous engines, Christian attacks were repelled by the Muslims.

With Philip II and Richard I's armies attacking the walls of Acre, defenders sought further reinforcements from Saladin. When they heard nothing, they offered a surrender, which the Crusaders initially rejected. The offer of surrender was only accepted with the arrival of Conrad in mid-July.

After negotiations, the Crusaders entered the city and captured the Muslim garrison. Amidst their victory, crusader leaders were fighting among themselves. On 31 July, Philip II abandoned the crusades and returned to France. The final negotiation was left to Richard I and Saladin, which later became unsuccessful. After failed negotiations regarding prisoners, Richard I ordered the decapitation of about 2,700 Muslim prisoners. In response, Saladin killed all their Christian prisoners.

Illustration of the massacre of Saracens

The Battle of Arsuf

On 7 September 1191, the remaining Crusader army led by Richard I and Saladin's army met at the Battle of Arsuf. Part of Saladin's strategy was to deny the Crusader army supplies. He ordered the burning of crops in the countryside which became insufficient to cut Christian supplies. Between 30 August and 7 September, Saladin was within striking distance waiting for the perfect time to attack the Crusaders. His Ayyubid army was largely mounted, which gave him more advantage. However, in early September, Saladin realised that they were not halting the Christian advance. The first major Muslim attack happened in the 'Wood of Arsuf', a forested region in Palestine.

Equipped with mounted archers, Saladin's army failed to dislocate the crusader column. Richard I focused on holding his army and exhausting the Muslims before a counter-attack. Despite winning in the Battle of Arsuf, the Christians did not totally destroy Saladin's army. According to contemporary historians, if Richard I had acted more quickly in launching a counter-attack, the Crusaders might have permanently destroyed the Ayyubid army. Many also agreed that the Battle of Arsuf tainted Saladin's reputation. After the battle, Saladin regrouped his troops and demolished fortresses in Ascalon, Ramleh, Lydda and Gaza

Painting by Gustav Dore depicting Richard I and Saladin during the Battle of Arsuf

Saladin's control of Jerusalem, 1192

Following the crusader victory at Arsuf, Richard I captured Jaffa. He also began negotiations with Saladin. The Ayyubid ruler sent his brother, Al-Adil, commonly known as Safadin, to negotiate with Richard I. When negotiations failed, the crusader army marched towards Jerusalem in November 1191. Meanwhile, Muslim morale inside the city was low. Before Jerusalem, Richard I's army seized Darum, located on the frontiers of Egypt. The crusader leaders believed that if they threatened Egypt, it would force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem.

Angered by the massacre of Saracens at Acre, Saladin ordered the capture of Jaffa in July 1192. Meanwhile, Richard I, who was set to return to England, gathered his men and sailed to Jaffa. Richard I's naval attack was unexpected. After a failed counter-attack, Saladin and his troops were forced to retreat. The Battle of Jaffa was the final battle of the Third Crusade. It ended with a peace treaty between Richard I and Saladin.

The treaty of Jaffa

The treaty secured the safe passage of Christian pilgrims in the Holy Land. Despite remaining under Muslim control, Jerusalem was open to Christian pilgrimages.

The coastal cities from Tyre to Jaffa would remain under Christian control securing the status of crusader kingdoms along the Mediterranean coast. In return, Richard I handed (only after destroying its fortifications) Ascalon to Saladin.

Neither side was satisfied with the treaty. Many Christians were disappointed with Richard I's decision not to recapture Jerusalem. Likewise, many Muslims lost their confidence in Saladin for failing to drive the Christians out. Both leaders did not rule for long. In 1192, while on his way to England, Richard I was arrested by Leopold V, Duke of Austria for the murder of his cousin, Conrad of Montferrat. Richard I only returned to England in 1194 and died in 1199. Meanwhile, Saladin died of yellow fever in 1193. His death resulted in a succession crisis which ignited the decline of the Ayyubids.

Glossary of Terms

SELJUKS

FATIMIDS

EMIR

A military family of the Oghuz Turkic tribe that conquered much of southwestern Asia in the 11th century. Their expansion led to the First Crusade.

A dynasty established by the descendants and beleivers of Fatima, prophet Muhammad's daughter. Their caliphate (10th-12th centuries) covered a region in North Africa.

An Arabic term which refers to a male monarch or ruler.

HOLY LANCE

SIEGE

CALIPHATE

Known to be the legendary spear that was used to pierce the side of Jesus as he was crucified.

A military blockade of either a city or fortified place to defeat those defending it.

An Islamic state under the leadership of a caliph, a politico-religious successor of the prophet Muhammad.