Political motives

What you need to know- Political motives: threats to the Byzantine Empire; Alexius I Comnenus's appeal to Urban II; the political ambitions of the papacy; Urban's political problems in Germany and France; violence and growing disorder in Europe; the Second and Third Crusades and the defence of the crusader states; Role of Venice and Doge Enrico Dandolo in the Fourth Crusade

The Byzantine Empire was an area that remained after the fall of the Roman Empire and into the Middle Ages. Its capital was Constantinople, which is in modern-day Istanbul, Turkey.

In 324, the Roman Emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire to the city of Byzantium. It was renamed Constantinople.

Map showing the Seljuk Turks' conquest of Byzantine Empire territory after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071

Threats to the Byzantine Empire

A hundred and fifty years later, Constantinople was the only remaining capital of the Roman Empire. This Eastern empire had a smaller territory than the original Roman Empire. The Byzantine Empire was at war to the east and west from 476–717 AD as it tried to take back Rome and Italy from the invading Germans. It was successful between 530–555 AD and temporarily took back Rome. In the 560s, invading Avar and Slavic people took much of the Balkans.

Map of the Byzantine Empire in 555 AD

Rise of the Seljuk Turks

From 1025-1071, the Byzantine Empire started to fall into decline. After Emperor Basil II died, he was succeeded by many unskilled emperors who wasted money and reduced the army, meaning the empire could not defend itself well. Rather, the Byzantines came to rely on mercenaries for defence. Serious trouble came knocking between 1071 and 1091 when the Seljuk Turks decided to invade. The Turks rode in on horseback from Central Asia and attacked the Byzantine Empire. They took over all of Turkey by 1091. The Byzantines called on Europe for help, and this gave rise to the First Crusade.

Manuscript showing Sultan Barkiaruq, the Seljuk ruler during the First Crusade

Appeal to Pope Urban II and papal supremacy

1055

The Seljuks took over several Samanid cities and occupied Baghdad. They established themselves as the new protector of the Abbasid caliphate and Sunni Islam, which created the empire in Persia and Mesopotamia.

1070s

They entered the Byzantine Empire territory after taking Syria from the Fatimids. After the defeat of the Byzantine Emperor at the Battle of Manzikert, they conquered Anatolia and established the Sultanate of Rum.

                               **Illustrations depicting Pope Urban II calling for a crusade**

As a response, in 1095, Urban II made his speech at the Council of Clermont urging every social class to embark on a righteous war to rescue the Holy Land from the hands of the 'infidels'.

The Council of Clermont in France was a special assembly of ecclesiastics and laymen of the Catholic Church made by Pope Urban II in response to the plea of Alexius I to help the Christians in the East. One of the most accurate versions of Urban II's speech at Clermont was written by Fulcher of Chartres, who was present at the Council. Letters by Urban II were also evaluated by historians to further study the real motives of calling for a crusade.

All who die by the way, whether by land or by sea, or in battle against the pagans, shall have immediate remission of sins. This I grant them through the power of God with which I am invested - Fulcher of Chartres' account of Pope Urban II's speech

Pope Urban II at Clermont

About 600,000 to 100,000 people responded and marched to Jerusalem. This was known as the First Crusade.

Pope Urban's political problems

From the outset, Urban II adapted the policies of Pope Gregory VII. He supported declarations against lay investitures, clerical marriages, simony, the emperor and the antipope. On his tour, he facilitated the marriage of Welf II, Duke of Bavaria and Matilda, Countess of Tuscany. Moreover, Urban II supported the rebellion of Prince Conrad of Germany against his father in 1095. The following year, Urban II aided in the arranged marriage of Prince Conrad and Maximilla, daughter of Count Roger of Sicily. While supporting the work of Anselm, Urban II also negotiated with William II, King of England.

Urban II obtained significant support in Southern Europe. Amongst his faithful allies were the Normans in Sicily and Italy and the Castilians in Spain after he supported the Reconquista.

Prior to the First Crusade, Urban II's letter revealed his concern over the defence of Christians against the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula, specifically the town of Tarragona. In his letter, he promised the Catalans penance and forgiveness if they help in rebuilding the town. Despite the isolation of Christian war efforts in the Iberian peninsula with the crusade in West Asia, Urban II's motif of defending the Christian world against the Muslims was clear.

Investiture Contest

The power of the papacy increased further with the Investiture Contest. The Investiture Controversy/Contest formally began in 1078 when Pope Gregory VII completely banned the investiture of Ecclesiastes by all laymen, including kings. The Concordat of Worms in 1122 differentiated royal and spiritual powers and gave the emperor a limited role in the selection of bishops.

The conflict did not entirely end with the Concordat of Worms. Disputes between the succeeding popes and emperors reoccurred until northern Italy was lost to the empire.

A woodcut by Philip Van Ness, A medieval king investing a bishop with the symbol of office

After the introduction of reforms in the Church by Emperor Charlemagne, tensions between the pope and the emperor increased. The Gregorian Reforms in 1075 further heightened the changes in the governance of the Church and put at stake its relationship with the imperial government.

Investiture of Bishops and Abbots before the Controversy

Effects: Proliferation of simony, bishops became feudal lords

Effects: Ended lay investiture and gave monarchy limited control over the elections, election free of consecration

The Second and Third Crusades and the defence of the crusader states.

Despite many difficulties, crusaders of the first armed pilgrimage in 1095 victoriously captured the Holy Land from the Seljuk Turks. As a result, crusader states were established and ruled by Europeans, mostly Frankish nobilities. The County of Edessa, principalities of Antioch, Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem became the haven for crusaders and pilgrims from the West.

The Fall and Massacre of Edessa, 1144

When Zengi became the Emir of Mosul, crusaders living in Outremer were threatened. In 1129, Count Baldwin II of Edessa was defeated in a battle outside Damascus. Followed by the death of King Fulk of Jerusalem, Zengi finally besieged Edessa. Following the fall of Edessa, both Western and Eastern Christians feared that Jerusalem might fall next.

Pope Eugenius III used the success of the First Crusade as propaganda for the Second Crusade. He argued that the re-conquest of Edessa by the Muslims was because of sinful Christians.

Map showing the crusader states: County of Edessa, Principality of Antioch, County of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem

Brief timeline of the Second Crusade

May 1146

Influenced by Bernard's preaching, King Louis VII officially joined the crusade. King Conrad III of Germany led his army into the Second Crusade, but most were destroyed while crossing Anatolia.

October 1147

Lisbon was captured by crusaders under Afonso, I, first King of Portugal. Conrad III's forces were defeated by the Saracens at the Second Battle of Dorylaeum.

December 1146

In December 1146, Conrad III arrived in Constantinople, witnessing the remnants of his crusaders.

1148

By February, the surviving army was massacred by the Turks. In March, French forces in Attalia were also killed. The combined crusaders of Louis VII, Conrad III and Baldwin III were killed along their way to Palestine when they planned to capture Damascus.

*Map showing the routes of Louis VII and Conrad III *

The Council of Acre was a meeting attended by royal members of the High Court of Jerusalem were they decided to attack Damascus which was under the Muslim Burid dynasty. Leaders like Conrad of Germany, Louis of France and King Baldwin of Jerusalem believed that Damascus was also a holy city for Christians. As a response, Damascene aligned with the Zengid dynasty led by Zengi.

Despite the support of European monarchies, the Second Crusade failed. The Christian defeat was due to multiple reasons including:

• Lack of discipline among the German forces
• Disintegration of crusade forces
• Ignorant and foolish decisions of noble leaders
• Suicidal attack on Damascus
• Treaty made by Manuel with the Muslims
• Massacre of German forces at Dorylaeum
• Lack of food and water supply Between 1189 and 1192, the Third Crusade took place in an attempt to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin. Also known as the Kings' Crusade, this crusade was spurred by the religious zeal and unity of Henry II of England and Philip II of France. In 1189, the death of Henry II left the responsibility to his successor, Richard I, also known as Richard the Lionheart. The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa also responded in the Third Crusade.

Depiction of Richard I leading his army at the Battle of Jaffa, 1192

Following Nur ad-Din Zangi's death, Saladin was appointed sultan of Muslim territories from Baghdad to Egypt. Saladin took over Acre and Jerusalem. On 12 June 1191, four days after the arrival of Richard I at Acre, the city was recaptured from the Muslims. Months later, Richard I's army marched to Jaffa. Despite the Muslim assault at Arsuf, the crusaders were able to retake it and established a headquarters at Jaffa in September.

In November, the crusader army advanced to Jerusalem. However, heavy rain and hail storms led the crusaders to retreat back to the coast. While Richard I intended to return to England, Saladin led an attack to capture Jaffa which later failed. On 2 September 1192, a treaty between Saladin and Richard I was agreed leaving Jerusalem under Muslim control, but with more tolerance for Christian pilgrims.

Role of Venice and Doge Enrico Dandolo in the Fourth Crusade

In 1200, Boniface and other leaders of the crusading army sent envoys to Venice and Genoa to seal a transport contract to Egypt. Following the rejection of Genoa, most of the crusading army sailed from Venice. Aside from the European crusaders, Venetian soldiers and sailors under the leadership of Doge Enrico Dandolo also participated. As ratified by Innocent III, the crusading army set sail to Cairo on 24 June 1203. Short of what was expected (33,500), only 12,000 soldiers arrived in Venice. The Venetians provided the crusaders with 50 war galleys and 450 transports.

Depiction of crusaders conquering the City of Zadar

Originally, the crusaders owed Dandolo 85,000 silver marks, but the Venetians were paid 35,000 silver marks. Dandolo keeps them interned unless payment has been made. As a result, the crusaders were left in extreme poverty. Dandolo and the Venetians were placed in great financial and trading losses.

To compensate for their debt, the crusading army agreed to aid the Venetians in sacking Zara. Despite the warning of excommunication from Innocent III, extensive pillaging was done in Zara.

Upon hearing about the sacking of Zara, Innocent III sent a letter excommunicating the crusaders and ordering them to head to Jerusalem. Hesitant of the possible dissolution of the crusading army, the leaders did not convey the letter. By February 1203, Innocent III rescinded the excommunication against all non-Venetians.

While the crusaders spent winter at Zara in January 1203, Dandolo learned that Alexius IV offered to pay the Venetians with 200,000 silver marks and provide the crusading army with 10,000 Byzantine professional troops in replacement of ousting Alexius III Angelos. A fierce supporter of the plan, Dandolo bribed crusader leaders to accept, but others such as Renaud of Montmirail denounced the scheme.

Upon hearing the plan, Innocent III issued another other to stop further attacks against their Christian neighbours, but he did not directly condemn the scheme against Constantinople outright.

Dandolo preaching about the sack of Constantinople