Tensions and military dictatorship 1917

In 1817, the Reich constitution stipulated both the political and military power of the German emperor. When WWI broke out, Kaiser Wilhelm II served as the head of state and supreme commander of the German navy. However, the military commanders of the individual Corps Commands also assumed executive power as stated in the 1851 Prussian Law of Siege. At this time, the largest states of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria and Wüttemberg had their own war ministries and troops.

In the event of war, the most influential and significant military officer of the empire was the chief of the Prussian General staff, who commanded the Supreme Army Command or OHL (Oberste Heeresleitung).

The outbreak of WWI made Wilhelm II the Supreme Warlord or Commander-in-Chief of the combined armies.

Hindenburg and Ludendorff

(from left to right) Paul von Hindenburg, Kaiser Wilhelm II and Erich Ludendorff in 1917

Following the Kaiser's declaration of war on 31 July 1914, the Corps Commands assumed civilian, executive, security, economic and social matters. The Enabling Act also gave the Bundesrat the right to pass laws without the consent of the Reichstag. After the approval of war loans and passage of war laws, the General Headquarters were created. In mid-September 1914, Helmuth von Moltke was replaced by Erich von Falkenhayn as Chief of General Staff and Prussian Minister of War.

As the war progressed, Wilhelm II began to step back on military and political decisions. After heavy losses in the initial phase, Wilhelm II had to rely on his subordinates. As a result, the leadership of the army was autonomous.

The dilemma on whether to focus on the Eastern or the Western Front between 1914 and 1916 divided the political and military decisions of Falkenhayn and Hollweg. During this time, the supreme commander of the German troops on the Easten Front, Paul von Hindenburg, and Erich Ludendorff concentrated their military efforts against Russia. Following the entrance of Romania as an ally of the Entente, Falkenhayn lost the favour of Wilhelm II. As a result, he was replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff on 29 August 1916. Between 1916 and 1918, Hindenburg consolidated authority in almost all aspects of Germany.

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Hindenburg and Ludendorff in September 1916

Given his popularity among the German people, the third OHL established military supremacy. Compared to Falkenhayn, Hindenburg and Ludendorff were able to influence domestic affairs, particularly those related to war efforts. Despite the opposition of Hollweg, Hindenburg and Ludendorff's office succeeded in imposing conscription, propaganda and censorship. From the autumn of 1916, OHL's proposals were rejected by the Reichstag. By April 1917, their proposal of all out war (including annexations without peace negotiations) was opposed by the SPD, but supported by the Progressive and Centre parties.

As pushed by the OHL and approved by Wilhelm II, the German Empire resumed its unrestricted submarine warfare. As a result, the US broke off its diplomatic relations and joined the Entente Powers in 1917. On 12 July 1917, OHL leaders threatened to resign if Wilhelm II would not dismiss Hollweg. At this time, Hollweg also lost the favour of the Reichstag, particularly the conservatives and liberals.

The following day, Hollweg's resignation took effect. In addition to ousting a chancellor, Hindenberg and Ludendorff were also able to place Georg Michaelis as the new chancellor.

Erzberger Peace Resolution

In an attempt to end WWI with a peaceful negotiation, Catholic leader Matthias Erzberger introduced the Reichstag Peace Resolution on 19 July 1917. With 212 votes of 338, it was supported by the Social Democratic Party, Centre Party and Progresive People's Party. The OHL had neither been considered in the peace resolution nor the appointment of the new chancellor, Georg von Hertling. At this point, the Reichstag gained political power. In addition to dismissing a chancellor, they also demanded to have an influence in the selection.

The resolution was ignored by the German High Command and the Allied powers.

Translated text of the Peace Resolution:

As it did on August 4, 1914, the word uttered from the throne still holds true for the German people at the threshold of the war's fourth year: "We seek no conquest." Germany resorted to arms in order to protect its freedom and independence, to defend its territorial integrity.

The Reichstag strives for a peace of understanding, for durable reconciliation among the peoples of the world. Territorial acquisitions achieved by force and violations of political, economic, or financial integrity are incompatible with such a peace.

The Reichstag furthermore rejects all plans that envisage economic exclusion or continuing enmity among nations after the war. The freedom of the seas must be guaranteed. Only economic peace will lay the groundwork for amicable coexistence among the peoples of the world.

The Reichstag will actively promote the creation of international legal organizations. As long, however, as enemy governments do not agree to such a peace, as long as they threaten Germany and its allies with territorial conquests and violations, the German people will stand together as one man, persevere unshakably, and fight on until its right and the right of its allies to life and free development is guaranteed.

United, the German people is unconquerable. In its determination, the Reichstag stands united with the men who are protecting the Fatherland in heroic combat. They can be certain of the never-ending gratitude of the entire nation.

Independent Socialist Party

The formation of the Independent Socialist Party or Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (USPD) had its roots in the split of anti-war members of the SPD. Members were from the left, centre and right of the party.

On 6 April 1917, the USPD voted Hugo Haase as its first chairman, while the USPD's women's movement was led by Luise Zietz. The party demanded the end of WWI. By the spring of 1918, the USPD had 120,000 members. After the November Revolution, the USPD joined the Council of People's Representative, but only until December 1918. Members who separated from the USPD later formed the KPD or the Communist Party of Germany.

Max von Baden

In October 1918, Wilhelm II dismissed Hertling and appointed Prince Max von Baden as chancellor. After seeing the inevitability of German defeat, the Kaiser and the military high command agreed to send Baden to negotiate a favourable armistice. On 3 October 1918, Baden asked US President Woodrow Wilson for an armistice based on his Fourteen Points. By 20 October, and on the advice of Baden, Wilhelm II ordered the termination of submarine warfare. Meanwhile, Ludendorff, who was in denial, released an 'Announcement to all Troops', which encouraged the army to keep on fighting.

Baden then threatened Wilhelm II that if Ludendorff remained in OHL, he would resign as chancellor. On 26 October, Ludendorff resigned, while Hindenberg remained. With the adoption of the October Constitution, civilian political power over the military was defined.

San Luis Obispo Telegram headline

Pressured by the socialists, Baden was unsure whether to push for constitutional monarchy. Following the revolution, Baden proclaimed the abdication of Wilhelm II on 9 November 1918. It was succeeded by the declaration of the German republic by Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann.

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