Natural knowledge of God's existence

Natural theology

Natural knowledge of God's existence is seen in the order of creation.

Natural theology is the school of thought that holds: that God can be known through reason and observation of the natural world. I.e. that knowledge of God is naturally available to us.

John Calvin

• Whilst there are no named scholars on this element of the specification, the contributions made by John Calvin are significant and he should be a key component of any knowledge of God essay.
• Protestant reformer John Calvin held that humans can gain some knowledge of God through natural theology, however, it is important to note that Calvin himself believed this knowledge to be limited.
• Indicating an Augustinian influence, Calvin held that due to the fall, humans are separated from God and therefore the scope of natural theology in revealing theological truths is narrow.
• He did, however, hold that natural knowledge extinguishes the excuse of ignorance in us, we cannot say that we are unaware that God exists as humans do have a natural & innate awareness of God. For Calvin, this is most prominently explained through the 'sensus divinitatis'.

1. The conscience
2. Appreciation of aesthetics
3. Intellectual capacity

Holding that humans are the only element of creation to find appreciation in aesthetics, he argues that when we experience this appreciation of the beauty of the natural world we understand more about God's work.

The ability to reason that comes from the intellectual capacity of being human is the final element in which we experience the sensus divinitatis. The ability to reason about the intricate detail and finely tuned design in the universe helps humans to discern God's existence as a designer.

Explaining how natural theology can reveal knowledge of God to us, Calvin provides an analogy. He describes God's creation as a mirror. The beauty, complexity, and goodness seen in the world reflect the attributes of God.

Natural theology and Cicero:

Calvin was not the first scholar to argue that humans have an innate understanding of God. This view can be traced back to the Roman philosopher Cicero. He proposed the Universal Consent Argument in which he concluded that humans have an instinct to believe in God. Cicero's conclusion is based on the premise that people across all civilizations have a belief in some form of the divine as well as a universally held belief in the existence of an immortal soul. He deduced that if so many people believe in God, then not only is it reasonable to argue for his existence, but also that he simply must exist.

This argument is mirrored in scripture where Paul, on an evangelistic mission, finds the Athenians worshipping the "unknown God" (Acts 17:22-23). This act indicated to Paul that these people, who had not yet learned about God, were still engaging in religious practices. They seemed to have an innate understanding of God that, whilst devoid of specifics, communicated a sense of a profoundly significant being worthy of devotion and worship.

Natural theology and Kant:

📎 In his work Critique of Practical Reason, Immanuel Kant wrote "Two things fill the mind with ever-increasing wonder and awe…the starry heavens above and the moral law within me". Here, Kant is pointing to the view that humans can gain an understanding of God using natural theology. The 'starry heavens' indicate to Kant the vast, significant order of creation which, for him, rationally comes from God.

Second, 'the moral law within' is further proof to Kant for God's existence. He holds that all humans have an innate ability to reason about morality. An understanding of his three postulates explains how this moral law leads Kant to knowledge of God.

Kant does not think that the moral law is a code of ethics given by God to guarantee moral action, instead, he argues through the postulate of freedom that all humans have an innate free will, the ability to both do good and evil. The free choice to do the right, dutiful thing, leads to the second postulate of immortality.

When people choose to fulfill their good will they will be rewarded, since it is evidently clear that this reward does not come in this life, it would be irrational to deny the existence of immortality and life after death. In order for there to be a life after death in which people are rewarded for their free moral choices, there must be a being who can transcend the Earthly, phenomenal world, and fairly distribute that reward.

Natural theology and Aquinas:

Through our study of Aquinas in other units in this course, it is clear to us that he would defend the notion that humans can learn about God through natural theology.

We would use his teleological and cosmological arguments to argue that the natural order, design, and regularity within the world point to the existence of a designer. We would also use his concept of natural law and the God-given ability to reason & make moral decisions to illustrate his view that the "law of God is written on their hearts".

Aquinas would use the existence of guilt within his understanding of the conscience to explain that, just like Calvin postulated, the notion of guilt helps one to understand God, to learn about his eternal law, and ultimately gain knowledge of him. All of these points within an essay could be used as stand-alone lines of argument rather than synoptic links, however, more detail would need to be given than I have done here. You would need to explain specifically how, according to Aquinas, these views indicate that humans can gain knowledge of God through natural theology.

Natural theology and William Paley:

As above, this would not be a synoptic link and, for the right question, could be a line of argument in itself. Full details on Paley's argument can be found in the arguments from the observation revision guide, but, essentially: through his design qua purpose and design qua regularity arguments, Paley is arguing that humans have an ability to gain knowledge about God's existence through natural theology. Especially as seen in the order of creation.

Natural theology AO2: the Barth/Brunner debate:

Karl Barth and Emil Brunner were both Swiss theologians and ministers of the Calvinist Tradition. While Barth rejected natural theology on the basis of the fall, Brunner was influenced by the Thomist (those who agree with Thomas Aquinas) idea that reason can be used to identify aspects of God. The debate between the two was very much a debate about what Calvin's theology meant and the essays that they wrote were published together in 1946.

Brunner:

Brunner's essay came first. He held that the effects of the fall are not as damming as some might suggest, providing the following justifications:

4. Humans are made imago dei: humans are still the pinnacle of creation and able to have a relationship with God. This means that, at least on a spiritual level, humans are still able to learn about God.
5. General revelation: One of the ways that God communicates with fallen humans on a spiritual level is through the order of creation. Within the nature of this world, we learn about the nature of God.
6. The conscience: God's law, and therefore knowledge of him, is still available to humans through the conscience Above all, Brunner did conclude that revealed theology, through Christ and faith, is the best way to gain an understanding of God. However, for him, this did not mean that natural theology was devoid of value, It allowed us to begin the conversation about God and what we may know of him.

Barth:

In an essay simply titled "Nein!" (German for no) Barth responded to Brunner. He outlined three reasons for this objection:

7. The fall has corrupted humans on all levels: The fall has removed humanity from God so intrinsically that the spiritual self has no way of gaining knowledge of God on its own. He wrote that it is not possible for humans on their own to have a spiritual relationship with God – this must always come as a result of God's grace. He argues that if a person sees the beauty of nature and learns something about God it can only be because God has himself already revealed this to them.
8. The conscience is not a point of contact: Barth contended that guilt and conscience can only be activated once a person has experienced the grace of God – not before. These virtues do not point to god, they are the result of God's mercy and grace.
9. Order of creation: Barth believes that Brunner has placed far too much importance on human reason and undermined the importance of faith. He holds that humanity only sees order in creation, for example, after it has been revealed to people and it does not cause any form of natural revelation pointing towards the existence of God. The natural world cannot provide any basis to salvation or, the grace of God.