34.4.2 Informal State Co-operation Based on Norms and Trust

Introduction

Realism: Scepticism of Informal Cooperation in Anarchy

Core Assumptions of Realism

Informal Cooperation: Limited and Fragile

• Temporary and Strategic Cooperation: Realists acknowledge that informal understandings and cooperation can occur between states, but they view these arrangements as temporary and driven by immediate strategic needs rather than genuine trust. For example, states might cooperate to balance against a common threat, but such cooperation is likely to dissolve once the threat diminishes or changes.
• Security Dilemma: The realist concept of the security dilemma illustrates the fragility of informal cooperation. Even when states try to cooperate, their efforts to increase security (e.g., through military build-ups) can be perceived as threats by other states, leading to mistrust and potential conflict. This dynamic makes it difficult for informal understandings to sustain long-term cooperation.

Norms and Rules: Weak Constraints

• Scepticism Toward Norms: Realists are generally sceptical of the power of international norms and rules to constrain state behaviour in an anarchic system. They argue that norms are often ignored or overridden when they conflict with national interests. While norms may influence state behavior to some extent, realists contend that they are secondary to the fundamental drivers of power and security.

Liberalism: The Power of Informal Understanding and Cooperation

Core Assumptions of Liberalism

• Acceptance of Anarchy with Optimism: While liberals accept the anarchic nature of the international system, they are more optimistic about the potential for cooperation. They argue that states can develop informal understandings based on shared norms and rules, which can help mitigate the uncertainties of anarchy.
• Interdependence and Cooperation: Liberals emphasize the role of economic interdependence, international institutions, and the spread of democratic norms in fostering cooperation. They believe that as states become more interconnected through trade, institutions, and shared values, they are more likely to cooperate and less likely to resort to conflict.

Informal Cooperation: Trust and Reciprocity

• Norms and Reciprocal Behaviour: Liberals argue that informal understandings between states are strengthened by norms and rules that encourage trust and reciprocity. These norms, often established through repeated interactions and institutional frameworks, create expectations of cooperative behaviour. For example, the concept of "complex interdependence," developed by Joseph Nye, suggests that as states become more economically and politically interconnected, they develop a web of mutual dependencies that incentivize cooperation and reduce the likelihood of conflict.
• The Kantian Triangle: Immanuel Kant's idea of a "pacific federation" and his "Kantian Triangle" (comprising democracy, economic interdependence, and international institutions) illustrate the liberal belief in the power of norms and institutions to foster cooperation. According to Kant, democratic states, which are more transparent and accountable, are less likely to go to war with each other, and economic interdependence further reduces the incentives for conflict.

Norms and Rules: Building Blocks of Cooperation

• International Law and Institutions: Liberals argue that norms and rules, often codified in international law and upheld by institutions, are essential for fostering cooperation. Hugo Grotius, a foundational liberal thinker, advocated for the development of international law to regulate state behaviour and promote peace. Institutions like the United Nations and the World Trade Organization provide platforms where states can negotiate, resolve disputes, and reinforce norms of cooperation.
• The Society of States: The concept of a "society of states," as discussed by Hedley Bull, represents a middle ground between liberal and realist thought. This society is formed based on shared norms and rules, which help states cooperate even within an anarchic system. While this society acknowledges the self-interest of states, it also recognizes that norms and rules can create a stable environment where cooperation is possible.

Conclusion

• Realist View: Realists are sceptical about the sustainability of informal understandings and the power of norms and rules to foster long-term cooperation in an anarchic international system. They believe that cooperation is temporary and fragile, driven by strategic needs rather than genuine trust, with the security dilemma constantly threatening to undermine such cooperation.
• Liberal View: Liberals, on the other hand, are more optimistic about the potential for informal understandings to lead to sustained cooperation. They argue that norms, rules, and institutions play a crucial role in building trust and reciprocity, enabling states to cooperate even in the absence of a central authority. Through economic interdependence and the influence of international institutions, liberals believe that states can overcome the challenges of anarchy and work together for mutual benefit.