Media and Representation

Media representations:

Ethnicity:

The media is often accused of being racist, presenting stereotypical images of minority ethnics
Minority ethnic groups are greatly under-represented in the media
There are few BMEs in top media positions and few programs are aimed at these groups Angela Barry - 'Black mythologies' - representation of Black people on British TV:
Reports that when black people are portrayed they are depicted as troublemakers dependent on sports figures.
There is a big emphasis on cultural differences, criminality and racial conflict
Stuart Hall showed how the media presents mugging as a black crime - link to crime & deviance
Negative press coverage of Manchester City forward Raheem Sterling
"Emboldens racist rhetoric", says the Professional Footballers' Association.
Sterling, 24, posted on Instagram on Sunday saying newspapers are helping to "fuel racism" by how they portray young black footballers.
Sterling was allegedly racially abused during City's 2-0 defeat at Chelsea. "It is evident that he is often singled out and treated more harshly than his colleagues," said a union statement. -"As such, these stories are fuelling racism within the game, as reports of racist abuse continue to rise.
"We have been aware for a few months of the targeting Raheem faces in the press."
50-70s black people were absent or underrepresented. Often presented as criminals and stereotypes on TV and/or a narrow range of roles (eg singers, dancers).

60-70s news simplified race issues and negatively reported them. Problems in Africa were over-reported - black people associated cars, conflict and riots. Cottle (94) saw this as hiding from the real problem.
Black people were 'criminalised'. Media coverage on mugging and 'black crime' – distorted coverage – people started to see black people as a threat to society – moral panics. media ignored social inequalities and police harassment.
Abercrombie (96) saw improvement on TV in the 90s. black representations became more normal – e.g.
Cosby Show (m/c, normal, successful).
However, for other ethnic groups, there is still misrepresentation. Southeast Asian people are often depicted in forced marriages/refusal to fit in. Bradford riots in 2001 were misreported by the mass media: people interviewed said Asian youths were seen as troublemakers and National front provocation was ignored.
British Asians are never positively represented in the mass media according to some.
The GUMG and others - shown news and current affairs programmes are essentially nationalistic and subliminally reinforce white people in power and capitalism – ISA. -Developing countries – associated with problems (disasters, war, famine)
Marxist- such portrayals reinforce the capitalist system by showing the superiority of white Western culture.
This has been replaced with tokenism (the inclusion of a figure who may be black, female, gay and so on, into a media text to show that the text is not racist, sexist etc)
South Park created a 'Token' character to poke fun and make a political point about how the media place token characters from BME communities into casts Hartman and Husband
Argue that the media operates within a culture that sees foreigners, especially black people as inferior.
Media emphasises racial conflict and problems and presents negative images of minority ethnics.
Likely to increase problems in mixed-race areas and in all-white communities. If this is people's only source of information- likely to increase prejudices.

Van Djiks (1991)

Studied inner city riots of the 1980s and showed how the tabloid press focused on a racial and criminal explanation of the riots, even though many young white people were involved.
The Sun dismissed sociological explanations of the riots as 'making excuses for criminals'. Using a form of content analysis called discourse analysis, Van Djiks analysed the meanings and ideology behind these portrayals.
He argued that the British media constantly flatters its readers with statements like 'the British are a kind and tolerant people' always followed by the racist 'but'; then minority ethnics are accused of abusing our hospitality, being social security scroungers, bogus asylum seekers, criminals and terrorist sympathisers. Hall (1989)
Argues that, in the past, the three basic representations of black people in the cinema and on TV were as natives, entertainers and slaves.
Ethnicity- 'through the white eye' & interpreted through the 'grammar of race'. Media's view of minority ethnics is coloured by colonialism and the dominance of the white Western world. -Beyond black- depiction of Native Americans- warriors, savages etc.
Minority ethnicities are presented as inferior or subordinate, whites as dominant or superior. Cumberbatch et al - looked at representations of ethnicity in TV programmes:

He studied the 60 most popular British factual, entertainment and drama TV programmes and found that the percentage of people from ethnic minorities who held a speaking role in these shows was quite representative of the overall proportion of ethnic minorities in the UK.
However, some ethnic minority groups were over-represented (e.g. Black African Caribbean groups) and some were under-represented (e.g. South Asian groups)
The study found that people from ethnic minorities are most likely to appear in entertainment shows.
They're also fairly well-represented in factual shows as 'key contributors'.
However, representation in more major roles is limited - ethnic minorities are less likely to be presenters or have lead roles in TV dramas Cottle:
Points out that the media portrays ethnic minorities in ways that reinforce views of the 'other'.
He also criticises media portrayals of multiculturalism
He says they gloss over problems such as power imbalances between different ethnic groups and the historical effects of colonialism and racism. Have there been changes?
There is now an appreciation for black culture
Major figures in music, arts and media generally
Crossover of minority ethnic culture into the mainstream
Increase in appreciation of BME culture. Black culture has grown and is not so much a minority / marginalised group.
Music awards / Hollywood etc. Policy commitments from Media outlets to employ BME groups (+ disc?) – BBC justifying licence fee – have to be seen to be fairer.
Far more choices and products are aimed at BME groups through a range of media platforms. Young BME fastest growing group in terms of using media.
New media and social media allow groups to represent themselves and diversity – helping to fight stereotypes.
BME characters in mainstream soap operas and dramas on TV are seen as normal – Eastenders.
43% of viewers are BME – which shows more acceptance. A03 - theories and ethnic representations:
Pluralists = it is what the audience wants/reflects the NV of journalists. Cottle argues the media encourages groups to construct a sense of 'us' and 'them' which separates groups. Poor representations represent their social standing/status. Media reflect mainstream white opinion on BME groups.
Marxists = Media uses racism to promote the interests of the powerful. GMG – 'white eyes' of the media, reinforce stereotypes.
Reinforces the cultural hegemony of white people Scapegoating and creating folk devils divides people and gives someone a focus for their blame.
Moral panics about immigrants and asylum seekers help to divide the working class on racial grounds and produce false consciousness.
The blame for economic and social problems, like unemployment and crime, is focused on minority ethnic groups rather than the real causes- capitalism and the injustices that are part of its nature

Sexuality:

Sexuality: refers to people's sexual characteristics or behaviour

Sexual orientation: refers to the type of people that individuals are attracted to

1990s moral panic - promiscuous teenage girl and benefits:

Sensationalise young parents Moral panic over teenage parents in the 1990s and teenage pregnancy.
Panic over 'benefits and council flats' (these rates have dropped now). Little Britain satirising this panic.
Now far more teaching of LGBTQ+ rights in school – into the mainstream. Heterosexuality:
Women are defined by their sexual attractiveness and sex appeal.
Sex objects are seen through the male 'gaze', especially in mm – advertising, female celebrities. Increasingly men are becoming sexualised objects.
Men's magazines – focus on diet, health, appearance and cosmetics. Body form is important and more in sexualisation in advertising.
'Moobies' in the 2000s in papers.
The Sun (2005) – Hall of Shame(!)
McRobbie – men scrutinised by females. Women are still seen as much more sexualised objects.
Porn seems deeply embedded in the culture of young men (technology has facilitated this). Homosexuality:

Media traditionally treated gay people as deviant and perverse.

Why? Fear losing investors/audiences and offending - Marxism

Heavily stereotyped and marginalised. Gross (91) – excluded them altogether. This led to distorted representations of gays – e.g. HIV – 80s – 'gay plague'.
As characters often are seen predominantly as gay characters rather than people who just happen to be gay. (Brokeback Mountain, 2006).
Things changing more recently? How? Storylines give people an insight / 'pink pound' – (money to be made) / pluralists – there is demand.
Becoming now a very accepted part of mainstream Is it tokenistic? Or are attitudes really changing?
Male gaze ensures things are seen through the eyes of (white) men (?)
Corporations reluctant to lose profits so often avoid centralising LGBTQ+ in media – treating them as deviants (does this give power to the people?) A02 - Stephen Port was recently convinced of murder.
Grinder - his master status became his sexuality due to the media's portrayal of him. Gauntlett: underrepresented and symbolically annihilated. Narrow and stereotypical roles. A large number of negative representations.
Cowan: 20% of people think TV is responsible for anti-gay prejudice.
Underrepresented in factual programmes – documentaries and news. Things are changing(?):

More mainstream and less 'alternative'.

Less symbolic annihilation. More gay and lesbian characters in dramas, films & soaps.
Brokeback Mountain, Will and Grace. Sports – still very underrepresented though.

Class:

Middle class:

Media editors and executives are almost all middle-class - Hegemonic Marxism
Middle-class people also appear on TV more often than working-class people, both in dramas and on news programmes
Many newspapers are also aimed at a middle-class audience A02: Daily Mail and Telegraph newspapers are often seen as focusing on the ideas and concerns of the middle class - sometimes termed 'Middle England'
Middle-class individuals are portrayed as educated, successful and able to cope with life's problems
They are also represented as the norm for society False Class consciousness:
Marxists argue that these characteristics serve to promote ruling-class ideology.
British MCs are often portrayed as products of a 'meritocracy' in which successful people are seen as deserving of their success due to their hard work or their talents.
Marxists believe that such representations of the middle classes reinforce a type of 'false class consciousness' in which working-class people are deceived into believing that social inequality is a result of the middle classes deserving their success rather than as a result of unequal life chances. A03 - Pluralists: it is what the people and consumers want and therefore reflects their interests

A02 - Does 'The Apprentice' celebrate capitalism and reinforce middle-class values, have we come to see this as the norm?

Pluralists:

Pluralists, on the other hand, argue that media representations of the middle classes accurately reflect the way that media consumers perceive their society.
Research finds little evidence of changing representations.
This may be because media professionals themselves tend to come from the middle class and also because this social class group is often regarded as stable and relatively conservative. Working Class:
Under-represented and generally negative, don't conform to the middle-class way of life 4 representations of the working class: stupid buffoons, trouble makers/ conflict, idealised and romanticised working-class communities and white trash or chavs

Glennon and Butsch (1982) looked at 40 years of families on TV in the USA:

They found that only 4% of sitcoms featured a family where the head of the household was a manual worker
In real life, 36% of American families were like this
Nearly half of TV families had a professional as head of the household - in real life, only 25% were actually like this.
Most of the TV families were wealthy and glamorous
Glennon and Butsch thought that most working-class dads were portrayed as stupid and comical
Newman - the media blames the working class for poverty and unemployment and when poverty is discussed, the media talks about statistics instead of human suffering.
Newman also argues there is little realistic representation of the everyday lives of working-class (despite the large proportion)
He also believes the working class is portrayed as unflattering or in a pitying light.
Embraces a somewhat nostalgic perspective on working-class community life that is no longer experienced by most working-class people - outdated?
Dodd and Dodd (1992) present evidence for both continuity and change in media representations of working-class characters in EastEnders.
They argue that the show has managed to introduce elements of realism that would not have seemed possible in earlier working-class soap operas such as Coronation Street in the 1960s.
Devereux argues that working-class people are seen as falling into two main categories:

Positive portrayals: of happy and deserving poor
Negative images of those on welfare benefits

A02 - The Royale Family:

Sitcom known for realistic portrayal of WC family life
The scripts contain conversations about the boring details of everyday life and revolve around a family occasion, e.g. marriage of the family's daughter Denise, the birth of her first child and the child's christening.
All of the episodes take place in the Royles' home, which appears to be a typical British council house or similar; most centre on the telly-centric living room.
The speech, actions, jobs (or lack thereof), opinions and behaviours have all been praised as realistic.
Lead actor Ricky Tomlinson who, as a young man, was heavily involved in trades, unions and working-class politics.
Not simply a negative stereotype or nostalgia but is an attempt at a more realistic viewpoint. Owen Jones - The demonisation of the working class:
Argues that media use of the term 'chav' has come to represent a way of condemning working-class people and WC culture.
Jones uses the term 'chavtainment' to refer to 'reality TV shows, sketch shows, talk shows, even films … dedicated to working-class Britain' that portray working-class individuals as 'bigoted, slothful, aggressive people who cannot look after themselves, let alone their children'
Jones criticises a number of successful TV shows, such as Wife Swap and The Jeremy Kyle Show, which he sees as deliberately portraying working-class people in a negative way. -Jones contends that such representations seek to construct a type of underclass that contrasts with earlier ideas about working-class culture; he explores how the working classes have gone from being portrayed as 'the salt of the earth' to being portrayed as 'the scum of the earth'.
Some media representations of the working classes concentrate on social issues associated with extreme poverty.
Such portrayals focus on themes such as 'scrounging' from the welfare state and living on the edges of criminality. Media representations of the underclass do this in a more overt way and reflect New Right views of underclass lifestyle…
Watching this diverts our attention away from the real causes of inequality and the way it is presented often makes us think it is their fault they are poor and makes us feel better about our position. Underclass:
Negative and a threat to society's norms and values.
Golding and Middleton (82) examined media-generated moral panics about alleged welfare abuse. During their six-month content analysis-based study, they found that welfare issues, as such, did not make the news.
Welfare was only seen as newsworthy when it was connected with other issues such as crime, fraud or sex. A key finding was that the poor are constructed in the media as either deserving or undeserving.
Golding and Middleton argued that the media demonises certain sections of the underclass and that this has contributed towards legitimising welfare cutbacks by the state. A03: legitimises Tory benefit cutbacks and their values
Price (2014) - Benefits Street and the BBC two-part series Famous, Rich and Hungry, as 'poverty porn'.
Intended to exploit a programme's content in order to have a particular shocking effect on the audience and to shape people's response to the content of the programme.
Price used discourse analysis and the ideas of sociologist Stuart Hall to argue that Benefits Street is intended to be 'decoded' by its audience as a portrayal of those aspects of lower-class culture that ought to be judged by hard-working families (as well as MC and UC people).
He also argued that 'the narratives in Benefits Street have a human and poignant quality, often presenting decent and compassionate people disenfranchised by an unfair society'. Price argues that these more empathic aspects of the representation are frequently missed by viewers and political commentators. Upper class:
The media appears to support the Royal Family. Nairn (1988), media representations of the Queen and other members of her family constitute something of a 'soap opera' in the attention that is given to all of their activities, including relatively trivial events.
Media support for the Royal Family is seen as linked to the reinforcement of a sense of national identity. e.g. royal events such as weddings and funerals are represented in the media as national events and may be public holidays.
In addition, though negative or controversial actions by members of the Royal Family are reported in the news media, they are typically forgotten quickly and replaced by positive portrayals. Nairn:
The Royal Family as a concept equates to niceness, decency and ordinariness. The Royal Family are deemed to be 'like us, but not like us'; the Queen is seen as an ordinary working mother doing extraordinary things.
An example might include the difficulties she has experienced with her children which ordinary people can relate to, such as divorce. An obsession with the Royal Family developed through British society following the Second World War.
Media criticism of Prince Charles' lobbying of government ministers and civil servants in which he was reported as having met with government ministers 36 times since 2010. described by journalists as inappropriate and unwise since the Prince is supposed to adopt a neutral attitude towards government policy.
His meetings were assumed to have involved giving advice to the government or questioning government ideas.
Other evidence suggests that such criticism is not sustained but is 'balanced' by a positive portrayal of Prince Charles' charitable works.
Overall, evidence indicates that little long-term attention is given to criticism of the Royal Family or to questioning of their role.
Research into media representations of the Royal Family would seem to provide evidence of both continuity and some change. Underesearched:
The upper classes are an under-studied area of research, perhaps because they are an elite group that practises social closure, which makes it difficult for sociologists to gain access to them.
It is often argued that upper-class or wealthy people are seldom represented in a critical light or their role in society is scrutinised or questioned. They tend to be portrayed positively and as deserving of their position of wealth, power and celebrity.
Traditional members of the upper classes are represented in either an eccentric or nostalgic light such as in television costume dramas such as Downton Abbey or films such as The King's Speech and the recent Crown Netflix series.
According to Reiner (2010), contemporary representations of people with wealth show them as examples of success within a meritocratic society.
This means that when people are shown as having enormous wealth, their achievements are celebrated and the audience is encouraged to identify with the culture of consumption and materialism that is portrayed in the lifestyle of the wealthy. False class consciousness and celebrity culture:
The portrayal of meritocracy is seen by Neo-Marxists as evidence that such media representations are part of an effort to maintain a 'false class consciousness' that discourages critical examination of why some people have enormous wealth and others remain poor:
Why do some people in society seem more able to access private schools and elite universities such as Oxford and Cambridge? While others seem unable to thrive in education in spite of their own intelligence and ability.
Media representations of wealth tend to focus on 'celebrity culture'. TV programmes, magazines and internet-based media devote large amounts of time and attention to the deeds and lifestyles of celebrities with very little attention being paid to the appropriateness or otherwise of such enormous wealth and prestige in a society where many people doing 'worthwhile' work receive minimal pay and recognition.
Bread and circus

Gender - women:

Media messages about gender are stereotyped:

Most editors are men - Croteau and Hoynes found that in the mid-1990s in the US only 6% of top newspaper management and only 20% of top TV management were women and that women don't appear in the media as often as men
Cumberbatch et al found that 90% of advertising voice-overs were men and 66% of all people in adverts were male Female stereotypes:
Women in the media are often presented as ideals for other women to aspire to be
Naomi Wolf and Susan Orbach both reckon that the rise of eating disorders in women is a direct result of this A limited range of roles:
Women are represented in a narrow range of social roles in the media whilst men perform the full range of social & occupational roles.
Women are especially found in domestic settings – busy housewives, contented mothers, eager consumers etc.
Tuchman et al (1978) add sexual and romantic roles to this list. Women are rarely shown in high-status occupational roles, such as doctors and lawyers. If they are, they are shown to have problems with their unusual circumstances.
They are portrayed as unfulfilled, unattractive, unstable or having problems with relationships. If they have children they are shown as irresponsible with their kids and getting them into trouble. Men are rarely portrayed this way. A03: There has been an increase in stronger female roles e.g. Buffy the Vampire Slayer - portraying a strong female in a male-dominated sci-fi world

Visibility:

In 1990, 89% of voice-overs for TV adverts were male. Women were the main stars of only 14% of mid-evening TV.
Analysis of Hollywood films at the time suggested few women stars were seen by major studios as being able to carry a film by themselves.
Recent years have seen this change e.g. Alien Trilogy and Tomb Raider Female issues may be marginalised by the media
Most papers have women's pages which focus on women as a specialised group with special, often emotional needs.
These pages often focus on beauty & slimming
Tuchman uses the name term 'symbolic annihilation' to describe how women in the media are absent, condemned or trivialised.
He said that the achievements of women are presented as less important than their sex appeal which is a form of this symbolic annihilation Women's sport in particular is underrepresented.
Research by Newbold (2002) into TV sport presentation shows that what little coverage there is tends to sexualise, trivialise and devalue women's sporting accomplishments Women are also absent from top jobs in the media.
The majority of media owners are men In 2005, fewer than 5% of chief executives of the largest media companies in Britain and fewer than 10% of editors of national newspapers were female (Equal Opportunities Commission, 2005) Women as ideals:
Ferguson (1983) conducted content analysis of women's magazines between 1949 and 1974, and 1979 and 1980. She noted that such magazines are organised around 'a cult of femininity', which promotes an ideal where excellence is achieved through caring for others, the family, marriage and appearance.
Modern female magazines, especially those aimed at teenagers, are moving away from these stereotypes – although Ferguson argues that even these tend to focus on 'him, home and looking good (for him)' – modern media aimed at you changing?
Winship (1987) - however, stresses the supportive role such magazines play in women's lives.
She argues that they present women with a broader range of options than before and they tackle problems ignored by male-dominated media such as domestic violence and child abuse A03: modern magazines have moved on a great deal offering visions of femininity that involve independence and confidence as well as beauty and domestic concerns.
However, in magazines like More, Red and New Woman still encourage women to look good in order to attract men
Most women in films and on TV (especially presenters) tend to be under 30. Physical looks, sex appeal and youth seem to be necessary for women to be successful in TV and cinema. -The same is not true for men, who are still accepted as sexually appealing until much later in life.
Wolf (1990) points out that the media (especially advertising) present a particular physical image as normal or ideal body image though this is often unattainable for most. Commentators such as Orbach (1991), have linked such images to anorexia and bulimia in teenage girls. Sex appeal:
Women are often presented as sexual objects to be enjoyed by men. Most extreme version of this is pornography and 'page 3 girls' in newspapers. Mulvey - The Male Gaze:
Mulvey (1975) argues that filmmakers employ a 'male gaze', whereby the camera lens essentially 'eyes up' the female characters, providing erotic pleasure for men.
Men's magazines such as FHM encourage young men to dress, smell and consume in particular ways.
However, there is less pressure on men to change themselves to this ideal. Women on the other hand may feel the need to conform to ensure they are desirable.

Gender - men:

Media stereotypes:

Levi-Strauss said that one-half of binary opposition is culturally marked as being more positive than the other. For example in the binary opposition of male and female male is culturally determined as positive.
The media often uses these binary oppositions in stereotypical representations of gender - breadwinner and housewives Children Now (1999) - a research group
Asked boys between 10-17 what they thought about males they see on TV …
Attention focused on girls
Mainly shown in the workplace, not at home
Violent and angry
Leaders and problem solvers
Funny, confident, successful
Rarely cry Easthorpe (1990)
A variety of media such as Hollywood films and video games give this impression that a real man is based on his strength, aggression and violence.
However, this is an ideological myth as the majority of men are unable to reach this goal of true 'hegemonic masculinity' (AO3?) McNamara - the media fails to portray the reality of masculine life:
Content Analysis: 80% of representations were negative, showing men as violent and aggressive (when in reality a small proportion of men are like this).
20% focused on the metrosexual male - In touch with their feminine side and emotionally connected to their children: AO3 – increasing - why?
On the whole, men are demonised by media representations of masculinity.
Tunstall:
Primarily, the focus of the media has been men as workers, business people, stars and less as fathers and people in touch with their emotions.
But this is changing.
He points out that, while newspapers and TV have often focused on single-parent families, fatherhood or male promiscuity are rarely presented as causes of social problems.
Tunstall observed that, in contrast with women, men are seldom presented nude or judged by the media in terms of how well they match up to a feminine view of an ideal male form – less sexualised. The 80s saw the emergence of a new breed of magazines aimed at middle-class men:

Gauntlet: Men are emotionally vulnerable.

Men shouldn't be afraid to get in touch with their feminine side
They should treat women as equals
They should care more about their appearance
Active fatherhood is important However…

Colliers (1992) – men's magazines are often contradictory in their representations.

There are still images of rugged extra-strong macho men still circulating in popular culture. -Women are also still sexualised in images in these magazines. Rutherford - retributive masculinity:
This is the attempt to reclaim traditional masculine authority by celebrating traditionally male concerns in their content. For example, birds, booze and football.' A03 - Whannel's (2002)
David Beckham Mass media stories and images of David Beckham are contradictory as he is represented as both a 'metrosexual' and 'retributive masculinity.'
His identity is 'fluid' – his good looks, football skills and competitive spirit.
This led sociologists to consider whether masculinity was responding to the growing independence and assertiveness of women.
The media focus on male fashion and hygiene in these magazines was a sign that men realised that they could no longer simply take for granted that women would find them attractive. Postmodernist sociologists - the metrosexual male:
Mort - the rise in male fashion magazines/products reflects the change in social attitudes of men and the emergence of the metrosexual man
Edwards argues the 'new man' was simply a product of advertisers so they could sell their products to males and females - link to a unit of consumption A03 - Marxists: A true reflection of what men are like or just men being exploited so companies can sell their products and make more money?

What do feminists say about the depictions of gender in the mass media?

Liberal feminists: ladette culture, the portrayal of women is changing which in turn will give women more equality.

Mills: The newsroom is a very male culture that can be off-putting to females.
'Promotions are dished out at the pub and women aren't invited'. Radical feminists: The media is patriarchal and dominated by men who portray women as subordinate.
Wolf – the media makes women believe the beauty myth. This is the idea women must be a certain size/shape etc. Women are concerned with obtaining the perfect body as opposed to competing with men for positions of power.
There has been little change in the portrayal of women - still sexualised in many ways Marxist-feminists: pornography exploitation of women for profit
The media perpetuates negative female stereotypes however this reflects the needs of capitalism rather than patriarchy
Reinforces economic inequalities - discrimination in pay
The media promotes false needs to keep capitalism afloat in the form of advertisements.
The media therefore encourages women to invest in the beauty market. McRobbie - popular feminists:
Young women are developing a new form of feminism, rejecting previous types.
They develop their own language which is raunchy 'shagging, snogging and having a good time'.
The language is present in mainstream media, unlike the language of older forms of feminism. A03: However, Gauntlett states it isn't as simple as this. Magazines aimed at older people may contain traditional gender roles, whereas magazines for young people may represent a diversity of possibilities.

Postmodernism:

Men and women no longer get straightforward messages about masculinity and femininity. The mass media is challenging traditional gender roles.
There is an emphasis in the media on men's problems. The media is producing a greater diversity of identities. Pluralism:
Symbolic annihilation underestimates women's ability to see through gender stereotyping and manipulation.
They believe that feminists are guilty of stereotyping females as impressionable and easily influenced.
The media simply reflect the social attitudes and tastes of the time. Media is meeting the needs of men and women, if people were unhappy they wouldn't use or buy the media products.

Disability:

Medical model: people are disabled by their own physical and/or mental impairment. 'Disablism': people are disabled by the way in which people/society treats them – reinforcing the notion that disabled people need to be segregated from society or dependent on able-bodied people. (Shakespeare – eg of a 'social construction')

There is very little representation of disabled people in the media. (Though this may be changing over time)
Cumberbatch et al studied a selection of the most popular British factual, drama and entertainment TV programmes.
UK government statistics show that about 19% of the population has some form of disability, but their study found that people with disabilities had a far lower proportion of speaking roles in these programmes
Fictional representations of disability (both supporting characters and lead characters who were important to the plot and narrative) were slightly more common Roles for disabled people can be quite limited:
Research by Cumberbatch and Negrine looking at British TV over six weeks found the roles for disabled people were based on pity or comedy
They found that disabled actors never appeared just as actors playing a person who just happened to have a disability, only in roles particularly about disability
However, there are some positive portrayals of disabled people in TV and films - Stephan Hawking's experience of motor neurone disease in The theory of Everything
Cumberbatch et al also found that roles for disabled people on popular TV are now more likely to be serious than comedic - Issac in Sex Education Paul Hunt - 10 stereotypes of disabled people in media:
Pitiable or pathetic
An object of curiosity or violence
Sinister or evil
The supper cripple
As atmosphere
Laughable
His/her own worst enemy
Burden
Non-sexual
Unable to participate in everyday life
Roper (2003) criticises these telethons. Rely too much on cute children and are not representative. It reinforces the idea that the audience should give and the recipients (disabled) gratefully receive. They are about entertaining rather than helping people to see what life is really like for disabled people. Therefore these marathon shows reinforce disablist stereotypes.
Barnes argued that disabled people are often presented as being reliant on the charity of others - Children in need may reinforce this stereotype without meaning to
Cumberbatch and Negrine found that people with limited or no real-life experience of disability accepted the media stereotypes with little concern
People with experiences of disability were critical of the media and rejected the stereotyped images or media messages
Shakespeare (1999) – "Stereotypes are crude, one dimensional and simplistic". He argues having a disability as a character trait is a 'lazy shortcut'. Seldom are there characters who play normal roles but happen to have a disability. Is this improving? (should we positively discriminate to help break down barriers and stereotypes?) A03: many argue they are being broken down and there are an increasing number of people in roles as presenters actors, and comedians who have disabilities but it does not play to define their role

A02: - actress Lizz Carr

News representations of the disabled

Williams-Findlay (09) – content analysis Guardian and Times 89-09. Findings:
Decline in stereotypical words ('brave') but disability is still seen as 'tragic'.
Disability not seen as newsworthy.
Disabled organisations and charities are not used as sources and therefore have little influence over how disabled people are portrayed.
Contrastingly tabloid press had increased the amount of coverage but stories often demonised mental health disabilities as scroungers and undeserving of benefits. Less and less coverage was sympathising with disabled people but was rather negative.
Watson found this coverage encouraged people to believe that more people were being fraudulent with their benefits. He found there was a decrease in the number of stories about disability and the challenges faced by disabled people. A03 - Pluralists:
Media representations are of medical models.
Disability is seen as dysfunctional. Reflects public anxieties of disabled. Also reflects the public's admiration of some disabled people.
Disabled sociologists see the reps from a constructionist viewpoint.
Social reaction causes this condition and the experience of disability. Many argue that the mass media representations take this form due to:

Doctors are at the top of the hierarchy of credibility: their view of disability being unhealthy dominates journalistic attitudes.
The prejudice people have towards disabled is due to the fear they have of tragedy/loss / unknown / pain.
Disabled people are rarely consulted by journalists as they are seen as not normal. Views reflect that of the able-bodied who see themselves as superior. Are the representations changing?

Though the media are beginning to change, it is evident that much more work is needed by the media industry and the disabled community, where both need to work and learn from each other. Particularly mainstream media learning from the disabled media and art. subculture - Sutherland (1993) states: "that the very fact that previous representations of disability have been narrow, confused and unimaginative leaves the way open for disabled writers and filmmakers. What we can produce can blow the past away."
Through setting policies and codes of practice it will reinforce these media changes. Currently, this has been recognised in the Disability Discrimination Act, the Disability Equality Duty, the convention on the rights of persons with disabilities & the Council of Europe's Disabled Persons Action Plan 2006-2015.

Age:

Elderly:

Newman (2006): Upper-class and middle-class elderly people are often portrayed in TV and film dramas as occupying high-status roles as world leaders, judges, politicians, experts and business executives.
50+ - underrepresented. Fisk – US TV: 1.5% are older characters. Most are in minor roles and figures of comic and impairment.
Image of an older grey-haired male has the authority to impart the news or host a light entertainment programme.
Often paired with younger female attractive counterparts/co-hosts.
Older women newsreaders and presenters are often 'exiled' to radio. Leading female film and television stars are also often relegated to character parts once their looks and bodies are perceived to be on the wane, which seems to be after the age of 40. A02: BBC criticised for replacing Anna Ford with a younger presenter
Sociological studies show that when the elderly do appear in the media, they tend to be portrayed in the following one-dimensional ways:
As grumpy – conservative, stubborn and resistant to social change. A02: Classic 90s sitcom Victor Meldrew in 'One foot in the Grave'
Featherstone and Helpworth - found that magazines for older people tended to push an image of youthful older people - enjoying holidays, wearing youthful-looking clothes e.c.t - the media is starting to appeal to older people as advertisers have recognised that they can make money from the ageing population
Older individuals are represented as a burden – as an economic burden on society (in terms of the costs of pensions and health care to the younger generation) and/or as a physical and social burden on younger members of their families.
As enjoying a second childhood – as reliving their adolescence and engaging in activities that they have always longed to do before they die. Or just being a bit cheeky. A03: However, recent research suggests that media producers may be gradually reinventing how they deal with the elderly, especially as they realise that this group may have disposable incomes, i.e. extra money to spend on consumer goods.
Carrigan (2000) found advertisers reluctant to use older models for fear of alienating younger consumers.
Older more distinguished Hollywood actors resist this stereotype… sexual partners of younger female actresses. Why not the other way around?
In contrast a lack of older women on TV as they are symbolically annihilated – expected to be forever young and objectified(?) Teenagers:
Two very broad ways in which young people have been targeted and portrayed by the media in Britain. Dick Hebdige in his 'Subcultures' book (1979) identified these two representations: 'trouble' 'fun'
57% of stories negative, 12% positive. MORI poll 2005. especially teenage boys – yobs / ASBOs etc. Most people are unhappy with this portrayal.
Driven by news values? – need to sell papers and attract viewers rather than real. Older people (home-based) are more likely to believe these portrayals.
Driven by news values? – need to sell papers and attract viewers rather than real. Older people (home-based) are more likely to believe these portrayals. As 'trouble'
Often portrayed by news media as a social problem, as immoral or anti-authority and consequently constructed as 'folk devils' as part of a moral panic.
The majority of moral panics since the 1950s have been manufactured around concerns about young people's behaviour, such as their membership of specific 'deviant' sub-cultures (e.g., teddy boys, hoodies) or because their behaviour (e.g., drug taking or binge drinking) has attracted the disapproval of those in authority. A02: Cohen based his theory on the media reporting of conflicts between two teenage tribes of the 1960s, the Mods and the Rockers.

Moral Panic

Wayne et al. (2008) - content analysis of 2130 news items across all the main television channels during May 2006.
They found that young people were mainly represented as a violent threat to society. They found that it was very rare for news items to feature a young person's perspective or opinion. They note that the media only delivers a one-dimensional picture of youth, one that encourages fear and condemnation rather than understanding. A02: David Cameron introduced 'hug a hoodie' campaign

A03: Moreover, they argue that it distracts from the real problems that young people face in the modern world such as homelessness, not being able to get onto the housing ladder, unemployment or mental health and that these might be caused by society's, or the government's, failure to take the problems of youth seriously

What about this negative representation appeals to society's dominant (hegemonic) ideology?

Teenagers become a scapegoat for fears about family breakdown, violence in society, consumerism etc.

Teenagers have no 'voice' so cannot fight back.
Teenagers have their own culture (values and behaviours) which differs from the established adult culture. As 'fun'
There is a whole media industry aimed at socially constructing youth in terms of lifestyle and identity.
Magazines are produced specifically for young people. Record companies, Internet music download sites, mobile telephone companies and radio stations all specifically target and attempt to shape the musical tastes of young people. A03: New tech: Facebook, Twitter and Instagram, allow youth to project their identities around the world.

Changes in media representations - Young girls linked to consumer culture

McRobbie argued that in the last few decades media representations of young girls have changed
In 1970, young girls were often presented in magazines as being 'passive' led by the desire to impress boys
By the 1990s, TV shows and magazines aimed at young girls moved away from this representation.
They used the language of 'girl power' to suggest girls were free to be what they wanted to be
This presented girls as active consumers who could choose how to express themselves
McRobbie argued that the media wanted to create a consumer market for products aimed at young girls and women.
The media even encourages young girls to desire products aimed at teenagers so they'll become consumers too. Children:
British children are often depicted in the British media in positive ways. Content analyses of media products suggest that eight stereotypes of children are frequently used by the media.
As victims of horrendous crimes – some critics of the media have suggested that white children who are victims of crime get more media attention than adults or children from ethnic minority backgrounds.
As brave little angels – suffering from a long-term terminal disease or disability.
As accessories – stories about celebrities such as Madonna, Angelina Jolie or the Beckhams may focus on how their children humanise them.
As active consumers – television commercials portray children as having a consumer appetite for toys and games. Some family sociologists note that this has led to the emergence of new family pressure, 'pester power', the power of children to train or manipulate their parents to spend money on consumer goods that will increase the children's status in the eyes of their peers. A02: synoptic link to the unit of consumption - advertising

Media and Representation Simplified Revision Notes for A-Level OCR Sociology