Media Ownership and Control

Ownership and Control:

How has the media changed/developed?

Hypertextual, more choice, digital, user-generated, globally networked, virtual, simulation, more interactive, SEO = search engine optimisation, decentralised, advertising, subscription, social media

Ownership and control:

• Ownership of global media has become far more concentrated meaning the mass media is owned (and controlled) by a small number of individuals.

• Murdoch is one.

• He owns vast amounts of media outlets including TV channels (SKY / FOX), newspapers (The Sun and The Times), journals, news agencies and publishers.

• He has huge influence over the political process and what people think.

• He will make it so his media presents political parties in a certain light (spin) and this then influences how people vote.

• Politicians need him and he needs the politicians. This makes him a very powerful man.

• Some say too powerful as he is affecting democracy (he is not elected) but he has the elected representatives under his control.

• Murdoch has a history of being close with PMs, especially Conservative PMs as the Conservatives support less regulation of business (which means more profit for media companies (as they are businesses)) (Murdoch benefits)

• Most of the UK press support the Conservatives.

• This bias and spin will shape how people think and vote suggesting the press has a real influence over voters.

In 2004 Bagdikian pointed out the following trend towards increasing ownership of the media:

• In 1983, 50 corporations controlled the majority of news media in the USA
• By 1992, 22 companies owned and operated 90% of the mass media
• By 2014, United States media ownership was concentrated mainly in the hands of six companies: Comcast, Disney, 21st Century Fox/ News Corporation, Time Warner and Viacom The illusion of choice: media has never been more consolidated; there are 6 giants now controlling the media.

Features of media ownership:

1. Horizontal integration: News Corporation – range of media owned by the same company. Star TV in China / SKY, ITV, Harper Collins, Times and Sun.

2. Vertical Integration: controls all levels of media production – TimeWarner controls the whole process of filmmaking. They do not rely on other companies.

3. Lateral expansion: spread into other business areas – less risky spread over – Virgin (+Amazon). Holidays, healthcare, music, publishing, banking…

4. Globalisation – enabled global market – Samsung buying up other companies. News Corp strengthening in Asia, amazon.

5. Synergy: Profiting from not just the 'core' product. E.g. Harry Potter merchandise.

6. Technological convergence: combining media services into one device – again, not relying on other companies for their services.

The Concentration of Ownership:

It is clearly illustrated by the media in the United States. It says that there are five global-dimension firsts - (Walt Disney, News Corporation, Time Warner, CBS and Viacom) who own most of the newspapers, magazines, book publishers, motion picture studios and radio and television stations.

There are concerns over the concentrated nature of the rise of media ownership:

1. Is the media simply spreading a limited number of dominant ideas (the dominant ideology)
2. Do the owners of the media control the content of the media
3. What effects do the media have on the audiences they aim at? Formal controls of the media:

Libel: tangible in form, print, writing or pictures for example magazine, internet, blog and article. Slander: intangible in form, spoken words or gestures for example speech, news broadcast

The media is limited in terms of the law - legal limits to the media's freedom:

• The law restricts the media's freedom to support anything they choose in any way they like.

4. Law of libel: in short, lying and printing it as the truth e.g claims that David Beckham had multiple affairs without evidence.
5. Official Secrets Act: printing something that the government deems as a secret e.g. writing about secret military plans in Syria.
6. Bans on printing: media printing something that could threaten the security of the country
7. Equality Act 2010: anything that could discriminate against a certain group and encourage hate e.g. writing an article about how all Buddhists in Burma are in fact violent and responsible for the persecution of Muslims in the country.
8. Obscene publications act: anything that could be seen as obscene e.g. using overly explicit images in the paranormal documentary on child sexual exploitation.
9. Contempt of court: anything that threatens the objectivity of a court case e.g. writing about the character of a defendant during a trial

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Ofcom:

• In 2003, Ofcom (the Office of Communication) was established as a powerful media regulator, with responsibilities across television, radio, telecommunications and wireless communication services. This has the responsibility for:

• Furthering the interests of consumers.

• Ensuring the best use of the radio spectrum

• Ensuring choice, wide range and quality.

• Protecting the public from offensive material, safeguarding.

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BBC:

• The BBC was established by a Royal Charter and is a largely state-funded body, which is governed by the BBC Trust, whose members are appointed by the Queen on advice from government ministers.

• The Trust sets a strategic direction for the BBC and has a clear duty to represent the interests of licence fee-payers and to ensure the BBC remains independent and resists pressure and influence from any source.

• The BBC is partly regulated by Ofcom and partly by the Trust.

• State-funded (largely) (licence fee) + profits from spin-off companies

• It must justify the licence fee so it needs to satisfy consumers.

• Criticised recently for asking pensioners to pay the living wage.

• Although not strictly profit-making and commercial, it must compete and justify its licence fee. -The BBC has been accused of being biased from both sides. -This could be the way shows are edited, questions posed for political leaders, the phrasing and working of reporting / the imagery used. - As it is state-funded it has a duty of due impartiality – cannot be seen to be biased. Independent Broadcasting:

• Includes all non-BBC television and radio stations.

• These are regulated by Ofcom, which licences the companies which can operate in the private sector and is responsible for the amount and quality of advertising and programmes on independent television and radio for dealing with any complaints. Independent Press Standards Organisations (IPSO):

• Is an independent regulator for the newspaper and magazine industry in the UK.

• It was established in September 2014 by the newspaper industry itself in the UK.

• IPSO replaced the former Press Complaints Commission (PCC) which was discredited following its inadequate response to journalists hacking into people's mobile phones, which led to the Leveson Inquiry into the culture, practice and ethics of the press in 2011-12.

• IPSO seeks to monitor and maintain the standards of journalism set out in what is known as the editor's code of practice, which deals with issues such as accuracy. -Criticised for protecting the newspapers and themselves rather than protecting the interests of the public. -Still controlled by the big business owners. How do governments influence and control media output?

10. Official government press conferences and briefings: presenting the official government position on the issue. The government hopes that the message is clear and their message will be presented in the media clearly.
11. Leaks and unofficial briefings: these are more informal briefings of journalists through which governments try to manage what is reported in the news. These are non-attributable - that is, they don't quote any named source and will often be reported in the form of 'sources close to the government said…'. Journalists giving favourable exposure to the government as a result of such briefings are likely to be given preferential treatment in the future, such as privileged access to government sources.
12. Spin doctors: the use of government spin doctors, who try to manipulate the media by providing a favourable slant to a potentially unpopular or controversial news item. Alternatively, they attempt to bury bad news by releasing information that shows the government in a bad light at the same time as the nation's media are distracted by a more sensational story, or by releasing it during a holiday period, which means items of bad news hardly receive any attention as journalists and media audiences are on holiday.
13. Refuse broadcasting licences: they see as unfit/unsuitable (or don't like!) The Government prevented RM's attempt at a majority stake in SKY. China – only able to broadcast if you support the Chinese gov't.
14. Government blocking and interfering of websites: e.g. Google and China (human rights issues) Gov web filtering system to control what can be accessed. e.g. US and WikiLeaks – exposing US confidential emails. The government ensured financial institutions refused to process donations – therefore cut it off!
15. Government's electronic surveillance: ability to track and monitor social media/texts/web browsing…Surveillance. It is legal for the government to monitor and scrutinise people's use of social media. Some countries scrutinise heavily such media usage – which leads to oppression and controlling regimes.

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How do traditional Marxists see ownership and control of the media?

Instrumentalist / manipulative approach (part of the ISA):

• This view suggests that the owners directly control media content and manipulate the content and media audiences to protect their profits and spread the dominant ideology.
• People within the media have to toe the line and stay within the boundaries otherwise they will lose their jobs - media editors/managers/journalists have little choice other than to run with media within the boundaries set down by the owners.
• This may produce biased, one-sided reports.
• Curran and Seaton - found evidence which suggested media owners did interfere and manipulate newspaper content at the expense of the independence of journalists and editors to protect their own interests.
• Rupert Murdoch admitted to the House of Lords Communication Committee in 2007 that he was 'hands-on both economically and editorially' and exercised editorial control on major issues in the Sun and News of the World.
• In February 2003 - Murdoch was arguing strongly in interviews for a war with Iraq. He wanted them to support his right-wing conservative views.
• Sacked people who didn't support him – Harry Evans (former Times editor)
• Miliband (73) – believes that the mass media represents capitalist values and this plays a key role in the reproduction of the class system and inequality.
• Ruling class ideology is presented as FACT - we accept capitalism as the right way
• Media owners shape people's minds.
• Does not encourage people to be critical of the system.
• Often blame the poor for their position.
• We learn through the media to celebrate economic success and capitalism as well as the -Royals and other traditions – all of this feeds into a more conservative (and Conservative) bias.
• Any 'alternative' views are demonised and suppressed.
• Racist media coverage turns people against the minorities and gives them 'someone to blame'.
• This further distracts the people from the real problems.
• This diversion away from the real problems is part of the Bread and Circus Theory. Evidence for the instrumentalist approach:

1. Berlusconi (Italian PM) owned 3 TV channels which 40% of Italians watched. This led to him winning the election.

2. Lord Beaverbrook (press baron) - "I run the Daily Express merely for the purpose of making propaganda and no other motive"

3. 1950s/60s journalists were allowed to investigate more and expose abuses of power BUT owners still insisted on supporting certain political parties/ideologies.

4. From the 1970s/80s onwards owners intervened more – Murdoch's main aim is to make money and he sided with right-wing ideology as these policies allowed him to maximise profits (free market economic policies).

• Murdoch was very hands-on and chose layout/ front pages and angles himself.
• He employed people who aligned with him. A strong supporter of Margret Thatcher – he became known as the 'phantom PM'.

5. Since 1997, the media has been conservative globally.

• Bagdikian pointed out that around 25 years ago even concentrated ownership meant that a handful of global media companies and Mongols what he called 'Lord of the Global Village' dominated the world's mass media and controlled every step in the information process. A03 - Evaluation:

• The manipulative/instrumental approach assumes the media audience is passive, a mass of easily manipulated, who consume the preferred reading or interpretations of the limited range of opinions and biased reports found in media content.

• Pluralists would argue there is a wide range of opinions in the media, the media's owners and managers are primarily concerned with making profits - this means attracting large audiences to gain advertisers and the only means of doing this is to provide audiences with what they want not the owners

• The state regulates media ownership so no one person or company has too much influence - therefore news reporting shouldn't be biassed or one-sided

• Audiences are not as gullible and easily manipulated as this approach suggests - people can accept, reject or re-interpret the preferred or dominant readings of media messages based on their pre-existing ideas or experiences

• Pluralists and Neophiliacs suggest the rise of new digital media and the internet and the growth of citizen journalism has undermined the traditional influence of media owners and has been responsible for the shift in power from these owners to the people. Marxist hegemonic approach to ownership and control of the media (Neo-Marxist approach)

• This approach suggests the mass media spread a dominant ideology justifying and legitimising the power of the ruling class.

• The concept emphasises the concept of hegemony - first developed by Neo-Marxist Gramsci, who suggested through the spreading of the dominant ideology other social classes are persuaded to accept the values and beliefs in the ideology as reasonable and normal and form a consensus that becomes part of everyday common sense.

• The hegemonic approach suggests that the media managers and journalists have some professional independence - but still generally support the dominant ideology, but by choice - not because they are manipulated or ordered by owners to do so.

• GUMG points out that most journalists tend to be white, middle class and male and their socialisation means they share a similar view of the world to that of the dominant class.

• They found that 51% of journalists went to private schools.

• This means that the audience is exposed to a limited range of opinions.

• However in order to attract audiences and advertisers media managers and journalists may use journalistic news values, sometimes, developing critical or anti-establishment views.

• Philo examined the reporting of the global banking crisis of 2008 and found that the media set the agenda and 'gatekeeper' – they control what is covered in the media and how. This limits real choice.

• This wide agreement becomes deep set over time and becomes the hegemonic ideology. Agenda setting: control over what should be 'in the domain' / what should be discussed /avoided.

• Setting the agenda might mean that some newspapers focus on trivial and ridiculous stories rather than the serious issues of e.g. inequality. This leads to a cultural hegemony - one where capitalist values: enterprise, privatisation, profit, free market, property ownership – normal and natural.

• Jones (2015) – media owners and journalists as part of 'the establishment'- they control the media and therefore democracy and can manipulate it to suit them and protect their interests.

• Media should be holding the establishment to account but Jones argues they are all part of it. They therefore ignore the establishment and focus on and vilify the poor/asylum seekers etc. A03 - Evaluation:

• This approach underrates the power and influence of wonders - careers are dependent on gaining approval of their stories from editors.

• Agenda setting and gatekeeping means audiences have little real choice of media content, as newspaper and TV programmes are produced within a framework of the dominant ideology

• This suggests a direct manipulation of audiences more in keeping with the manipulative or instrumentalist approach.

• Whale suggests that the media reflects the demands of the audience - what is produced is a reflection of popular culture. Pluralists on the ownership and control of mass media:

• Pluralism refers to a society that has different groups that keep their identities while existing with other groups or a more dominant group. Rather than just one group, subgroup, or culture dictating how things go, pluralism recognises a larger number of competing interest groups that share the power.

• Pluralism serves as a model of democracy, where different groups can voice their opinions and ideas.

• Pluralists see the exercise of power in society as reflecting a broad range of social interests What do pluralists say?

• They argue that media content is driven not by a dominant ideology or the political interests of owners but by the height for profits through high circulation and audience figures

• There is a wide range of competing newspapers, magazines etc reflecting a huge range of audience interests and ideals, including those that challenge the dominant ideology,

• The only control is consumer choice, the media have to be responsive to audiences' tastes and wishes otherwise they'll go out of business.

• Pluralists argue that the media are generally free of any government or direct owner control and can present whatever point of view they want.

• Stress journalistic ethical standards – they report honestly and independently.

• Stick to news values

• Must appeal to their audience

• Audiences are free to choose in a pick 'n' mix approach whatever interpretations suit them, thanks to the wide range of media from which they can select.

• They have the freedom to reject, accept or reinterpret media content in accordance with their tastes and beliefs.

• The new globalised, digital media and social media particularly enable all sorts of views

• People cannot publish their thoughts on Twitter and report on events excluded from other mainstream media by sending their own news stories and photos to citizen journalism sites like Demotix or YouTube. A03 - Evaluation:

• Media owners have on numerous occasions sacked uncooperative editors and strongly influenced who is appointed at senior levels

• Owners, top managers and editors who often share a similar outlook on the world

• Not all groups in society have equal influence on editors and journalists to get their views across.

• The main sources of information for journalists tend to be from these groups consisting of the most influential members of society

• The pressure to attract audiences doesn't increase media choice but limits it - the media decline in quality and news and information get turned into infotainment (information to entertain)

• Hegemonic theorists argue that people have been socialised by the media into the belief that they are being provided with what they want - the media themselves may have created their tastes so that what audiences want is really what the media owners want. Digital divide (key criticism of the pluralist approach):

• Digital divide: the uneven distribution of the media and technologies in society.

• The proportion of non-users of the internet is unchanged since 2014: older people and those in the DE socio-economic group remain less likely to be online.

• For example, 1% of 16-24-year-olds don't use the internet compared to 48% of people aged 75+ who don't.

• 73% of the socio-economic group AB watch on-demand or streamed content, whereas 36% of the socio-economic group DE is 46%. Postmodernism:

• Postmodernists argue in the latter part of the 20th and early 21st century that society has undergone a process of media saturation and that this has led to an increase in the amount of media content and increased media ownership.

• This is a direct parallel of the Marxist view that the ownership and control of the media has become too concentrated as postmodernists suggest that there are too many sources and this has led to society becoming fragmented, the excessive choice and diversity of content has made it impossible for individuals, even those in powerful positions to control the media's output

• They look to processes such as globalisation and technological innovation as opening people to new forms of media content - digital media and the rise of the internet means that individuals are now bombarded with media messages.

• Audiences become selective about what media they choose, reflecting their own views and own world view - this removes challenges and critical thinking as people gravitate to what they already believe or enjoy.

• Postmodernists believe that this has impacted media ownership as it has created more owners of media sources, they argue this has reflected the greater diversity in postmodern society

• With a broader range of content, the audience has more choice over what they engage with - gives them power.

• Levene argues that the ownership of media is more fluid than in previous generations and people can reject any manipulation of media owners - allows people to reject sources, if they don't agree they switch off. Baudrillard - media-saturated society: he argues that the lines between what is real and what is an imitation of reality (hyperreality) have become blurred.

• He uses the example of the Gulf War in 1991 - he suggested that what we saw was a media image of what was happening, which was removed from reality. Rejection of metanarratives: Lyotard discusses the rejection of meta-narratives or grand stories and distrust of experts and this is reflected in media.

• The growth of alternative sources of knowledge to the mainstream has led to critical views of media as promoting 'fake news' based upon the ideology of owners.

• Individuals now create their own narratives through the use of social media - audiences have taken control and are now creating content. A03:

• New media sources are increasingly controlled by a few companies

• Role of technological algorithms in sorting and selecting appropriate media based upon individuals tastes and attitudes is a form of media manipulation by the ruling classes.

• Growth in bottom-up media messages, and the existence of 'echo-chambers' where likes and attitudes are repeated to give false impressions of societal norms and values. Harvey - Marxist interpretation of postmodernism:

-Neo-Mx says this change has gone on but because of economic changes not because of the rejection of meta-narratives.

-The 1970s economic depression, the economy changed and people became employed in retail, media and commerce. Coupled with globalisation this accelerated this change. Space and time he agrees have become less important.

-Capitalism has adapted to further make money from the people – encouraging the changing of identities and conspicuous consumption and commodity fetishism – this is part of exploitation and making money from the people.

-Therefore this means that owners, editors, and journalists do not influence and shape opinions for these reasons:

• Hyper-reality – what is real life? What is the media version? Affects what truth is and therefore media messages can be interpreted in a number of ways: polysemic – one is no more powerful than another.
• Lessing a distinction between producers and consumers – moves control away from corporations/owners.
• Multiple interpretations mean power circulates in a fluid way and this means people have the ability to challenge the message from the powerful. E.g. students use tech to organise and attack corporate giants (HSBC).