Dramatic Techniques

Arthur Miller masterfully employs numerous dramatic techniques in The Crucible to enhance the play's impact and meaning. These techniques work together to create a powerful allegory about McCarthyism while maintaining the authentic feel of 17th-century Salem.

Symbolism

The witch trials and McCarthyism

The entire play serves as a powerful symbol representing the paranoia surrounding communism that gripped America during the 1950s. Miller draws clear parallels between the House Un-American Activities Committee's persecution of suspected communists and the seventeenth-century witch hunt he portrays. Both periods feature narrow-mindedness, excessive zeal, and complete disregard for individual rights in the government's effort to eliminate a perceived social threat.

The similarities extend to the methods used - just as the alleged witches of Salem were encouraged to confess their crimes and "name names" to identify others sympathetic to their cause, suspected Communists faced similar pressure to inform on friends and neighbors. Miller's focus centers not on whether the accused are actually guilty, but rather on the court officials' unwillingness to believe in their innocence, reflecting the McCarthy-era excesses that wronged many innocent people.

Hot and cold imagery

Temperature imagery throughout the play speaks to both the superstitions and fears of Salem's citizens. The harsh conditions of 17th-century Massachusetts created a difficult environment prone to extreme cold weather, which mirrors the emotional coldness of the townspeople. The narrow-minded and stoic attitudes of the Puritans reflect a general lack of warmth, highlighted in specific scenarios such as John's references to his wife's coldness, which she later acknowledges as contributing to his affair with Abigail.

Fire and heat imagery proves even more significant in representing diabolical influence. Recurring testimonies suggest that those conspiring with the devil dance around fires in the woods, using them to conjure unsavory demons or spirits. The play's title itself refers not only to a trial but also to a vessel for melting ore or metal under extreme heat, mirroring the extreme pressure present in Salem. Fire can also represent creative or sexual energy, with the seductive offer of enlightenment proving as divine as warmth amid a cold, restrictive mindset in a literally freezing environment.

Official documentation

Written documentation plays a crucial role in both upholding policy and conveying sources of truth. Unlike the malleable nature of verbal accusations that can change from moment to moment, written material transforms ideas or beliefs into something more tangible that many accept as truth. A petition defending Rebecca Nurse, for instance, gains more credibility when it appears as a signed, written document rather than mere conjecture amid further court disputes.

Proctor's destruction of Elizabeth's arrest warrant symbolizes his attempt to eliminate an idea planted in the Puritans' minds. He takes this further by contemplating signing a document confessing to witchcraft, which would cement his newfound reputation. However, even the Puritans' fears of witchcraft and the devil operate within this system of physical evidence, showing their need for control through official procedures.

Genre elements

Tragedy

The Crucible follows the structure of classical tragedy, featuring a tragic hero whose fatal flaw leads to his downfall. John Proctor represents an upstanding character who is honest and highly moral, but his extramarital lust results in an affair with his family's servant, Abigail. Proctor's guilt over the affair and fear of his secret being revealed causes him to remain silent while Abigail accuses many townspeople of witchcraft.

As Arthur Miller noted while writing the play, "here is real Greek tragedy," reminding himself that Proctor's death by hanging at the end must be the result of an opportunity not grasped when it should have been, due to his character flaw. He compounds this error by falsely confessing to witchcraft himself, though he ultimately finds redemption when he retracts his confession - but it's too late, and like all tragic heroes, Proctor dies.

Allegory

By using the 1692 setting of the Salem witch trials to warn audiences about the dangers of present-day McCarthyism, The Crucible functions as an allegory - a story in which characters or images represent specific ideas. When Miller wrote the play, Senator Joseph McCarthy was leading Senate hearings accusing American citizens of being Communist sympathizers. Suspected Communists could be blacklisted from work or imprisoned, and many accused informed on friends and neighbors to save themselves.

The events of The Crucible parallel McCarthyism, with intolerance, hysteria, and fear causing characters to implicate each other as witches during legal trials that determine the fates of the accused. Miller links his story to instances of mass hysteria throughout history, referencing events like the Spanish Inquisition and Martin Luther's reforms. Through these connections, Miller presents an allegorical story about the dangers of mob mentality and unchecked political authority.

Historical fiction

Miller uses a real-life setting, real people, and historically accurate details to tell a fictional story, making The Crucible an example of historical fiction. Miller studied the Salem witch trials extensively in college and traveled to Salem in 1952 to conduct research at the courthouse while developing the play. He writes that although he took some artistic license, "the fate of each character is exactly that of his historical model", and there is no one in the drama who did not play a similar role in history.

Miller consolidated several historical figures and significantly altered some ages (raising Abigail's age and lowering John Proctor's) to make their affair plausible. This provided personal motivation for the main characters' actions: Abigail acts out of jealousy, while John acts (or fails to act) out of guilt. By making the protagonists' motivations specific and clear, Miller ensured their actions would feel relatable to modern audiences.

Allusions

Biblical references

Miller incorporates numerous biblical allusions throughout the play that add depth and meaning to the characters' struggles.

Language and diction

The play's style blends historically accurate phrases with more contemporary-sounding speech, grounding the story in its time period while ensuring the ideas remain accessible to modern audiences. Characters' speech patterns reflect the language Miller found in legal documents and court transcripts from the Salem courthouse, with some direct quotations embedded in the dialogue.

One particularly archaic word is "Goodwife," sometimes shortened to "Goody," which was typical terminology for "wife" in the seventeenth century. The girls use this term when accusing various townswomen of witchcraft. Characters often speak using biblical vocabulary such as "abomination," "damnation," and "heathen."

Narrative perspective

The play's point of view differs depending on whether it's performed or read. During performance, Miller doesn't write soliloquies to reveal characters' inner thoughts, so the audience only sees the action on stage. This creates a third-person limited perspective where we only access what characters do and say, not what they think or feel.

When reading the text, the narrator outlines specific grievances and disputes between characters, helping us understand why they might be eager to condemn one another. Through phrases like "in my opinion" and first-person plural pronouns "we" and "us," the narrator gives readers a privileged understanding of the action and far greater context than the characters themselves possess.

Foreshadowing techniques

Miller employs foreshadowing throughout the play to hint at characters' eventual fates, though many readers may already be familiar with the historical events that inspired the story.

Metaphors and similes

Miller uses rich figurative language throughout the play to enhance emotional impact and create vivid imagery.

Irony

Miller employs all three types of irony - verbal, situational, and dramatic - to create tension and highlight the play's themes.

Dramatic irony

Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows more than a character does. A powerful example happens when John Proctor adds salt to his wife's cooking and then compliments it as "well seasoned." We know he just seasoned the food himself, making his compliment dishonest, but Elizabeth doesn't realize this. This gives us insight into their relationship and his attempts to please her.

Another instance occurs when Ezekiel Cheever tells the story about Abigail Williams pulling a needle from her belly and blaming Elizabeth's spirit for pushing it in. We know Mary Warren made that doll and put the needle in it for safekeeping, but the court doesn't understand that Abigail is manipulating the evidence.

Situational irony

Situational irony happens when reality is the opposite of what one expects. Mary Warren's character transformation provides a striking example - in Act One, she appears as a terrified, submissive girl who can barely speak for herself, but in Act Two, she comes home late and boldly defies John and Elizabeth's commands to stay away from the courts.

The arrests at Act Two's end also demonstrate situational irony. Elizabeth, one of the community's most righteous and upstanding members, gets arrested for witchcraft. Not only is Elizabeth arrested, but the pure and nearly perfect Rebecca Nurse faces the same charges. Meanwhile, the corrupt girls making accusations remain untouched and are treated like "angels of God."

Act IV irony examples

The final act contains particularly bitter irony. Reverend Hale, a minister, counsels people to lie rather than tell the truth, encouraging those convicted to make false confessions to witchcraft in order to save their lives. This contradicts typical expectations for a minister and highlights the moral chaos engulfing Salem.

Deputy Governor Danforth also acts ironically by caring more about his personal reputation than achieving justice. As the judge, his primary duty should be punishing the guilty and protecting the innocent. Instead, he refuses to postpone the hangings because doing so would cast doubt on the guilt of those already executed, potentially undermining his authority.