Continental/Subcontinental: India

Contents

• Physical Processes
• Primary Economic Activities
• Secondary Economic Activities
• Tertiary Economic Activities
• Human Processes

Maps

Figure 1: Sketch Map of the Indian Sub-Continent

Figure 2: Physical Features of the Indian Sub-Continent

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Region : Continental

Layout

Topic	Area of focus
Physical Factors	Climate, Soil, Relief and Drainage
Primary Economic Activities	Agriculture, Fishing
Secondary Economic Activities	Manufacturing
Tertiary Economic Activities	Tourism and Transport
Human Processes	Population Dynamics, Religion, Urban Development/ Growth of Kolkata

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Geography

Region: Continental

India

• India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan are collectively referred to as the Indian subcontinent – our focus will mostly be on the country of India

• 47 times the size of Ireland

• Population of 1.2 billion people with a population density of 353 people per km2

• 80% of the population is Hindu, with small followings of Islam, Christianity, Buddhism and Sikhism

• Part of the underdeveloped world – average daily earnings is less than – but has a rapidly emerging economy and Sikhism

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Region: Continental

Physical Factors

Climate

India has a monsoon climate with three seasons due to changes in air pressure.

Mid-June to September

• Hot, wet season
• Low pressure brings rain-bearing clouds over the Indian ocean from the south-west
• Heavy rainfall and flooding can occur - tropical cyclones are common with wind speed reaching 160km per hour
• This season brings three-quarters of India's annual rainfall
• Torrential relief rainfall is evident in mountainous areas such as the Western Ghats

October to February

• Cool, dry season
• High pressure brings a dry trade wind from the North-east across the interior of the Indian subcontinent
• Some rainfall is experienced in the south east as the winds pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal

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Region: Continental

March to mid-June

• Hot, dry season
• Land temperatures can reach 45°C and humidity levels also increase

Monsoon rains are important as people rely on them

• If it rains late, then the planting of crops is delayed
• If it is lighter than usual, crop yields such as rice might not be as plentiful which leads to a food shortage
• If it rains too heavy then flooding, landslides and mudflows occur

Figure 4: Wind direction during Wet and Dry Monsoons

Figure 4.1: Wind direction during Wet and Dry Monsoons

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Region: Continental

Figure 3: Temperature and Precipitation in India

Soils

Tropical red soils

• Most common soil
• Heavily leached due to Monsoon rain
• All minerals except iron have been leached out – giving it its red colour
• Severe leaching reduces the soils fertility especially in the Eastern and Western Ghats where rain is heavier due to relief rainfall
• A Ghat is a raised plateau – an area of fairly even ground

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Geography

Region : Continental

Black soils

• Common in the Deccan Plateau
• Formed from weathered Basalt from volcanic eruptions
• This soil has a high clay content and holds moisture
• Most of India's cotton is grown in the Deccan Plateau because of this

Alluvial soils

• Present on floodplains such as that of the Ganges
• Soils here are ideal for rice growing and support over half of the Indian population

Desert soils

• Occur in the Thar desert region of North-West India
• Generally infertile as they lack humus

Relief and Drainage

There are three main physical environments in India.

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Region : Continental

Himalayas

• Created during the Alpine folding by the collision of the Eurasian and Indo-Australian plates

• Located in the North of the region and contains the highest peak in the world - Mt. Everest at 8,850 metres

• They are continuing to grow so landslides and earthquakes are common in the area such as Nepal 2015

Ganges Valley

• Low-lying, fertile floodplain of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers

• Before sedimentation, it was a seabed

• It has a deep layer of fertile alluvial soils due to high levels of rainfall and annual flooding

• It is the most densely populated area of India

• River Ganges is sacred and is worshipped as a god by followers of the Hindu religion

Deccan Plateau

• Triangular piece of land covering most of the peninsula

• It was uplifted by tectonic forces with steep areas of land called ghats on either side

• Area consists of weathered Basalt rock formed from volcanic eruptions thousands of years ago

• Soil holds moisture – cotton grown on the soil

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Primary Economic Activities

Most of India's population lives in rural areas. 60% of people are involved in primary economic activities.

Agriculture

Farming plays a huge role in the culture and economy of India

• Two-thirds of people depend on farming as their livelihood
• 90% of land is cultivated in areas such as the Ganges Valley
• India has almost as much cultivated land as the European Union as a whole

Intensive subsistence farming is the most common type of agriculture practiced in India

• Most farms are tiny – 50% are less than half a hectare
• Farmers provide food for themselves and their family with no land being wasted
• Double cropping is practiced, meaning two crops are produced on the same land each year – e.g. rice grown in the wet season and wheat in the dry season

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Region: Continental

Cereals - rice, wheat, barley - are the most important food crops

• Rice supplies 90% of the nation's food and uses one-quarter of all agricultural land

• It is a good crop to produce as it is high-yield and nutritious

• Planted in flooded paddy fields during the wet monsoon and is harvested when the monsoon has ended, and the land has dried out

• Alluvial soils along the Ganges-Brahmaputra flood plain are ideal for growing rice

Cash Crops also play a huge role in the economy of India

• Sold as exports to increase India's balance of trade (difference in value between imports and exports)

• Cotton is grown on the black soils of the Deccan Plateau

• Coffee, tea, coconuts and sugar cane are also grown in large commercial estates known as plantations

Livestock is largely underdeveloped

• India has more cattle than any other country in the world – 238 million

• Hindus view cows as sacred animals so they are not slaughtered for meat

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Geography

Region : Continental

Factors that affect Agriculture

Climate

The seasonal nature of the monsoon-type climate greatly affects the type of agriculture practiced

• Double cropping is practiced in order to make the most of the dry and wet seasons
• Rice is grown in areas such as the Ganges and Brahmaputra plain during the wet season
• Other cereal crops such as wheat and maize need drier conditions in order to grow so these are grown during the dry monsoon

Precipitation levels from monsoon rains in June and July can reach 2,000mm in places like the Western Ghats

• This level of precipitation favours the production of rice as it is planted in flooded paddy fields
• Rice thrives in these wet conditions

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Region : Continental

North-West India and the Solapur region of the Deccan plateau are amongst the driest areas in India

• A cereal crop called Millet is the dominant crop here as it thrives in the dry conditions

• Solapur is in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats so gets less than 900mm of precipitation per year

Yearly temperatures average around 20-30 degrees

• This heat favours the growing of cotton, tea and other important cash crops

The climate in India also affects the soil type which in turn affects agriculture

• Ganges valley is one of the most intensively farmed areas in the world

• Nutrient - rich alluvial soils

• Heavy monsoon rains wash the nutrients and minerals down through the soil – leaching

• This results in laterite soils – India's most common soil type – which become infertile due to leaching

• This is a big problem for agriculture in areas such as the Western Ghats where annual rainfall can exceed 3,000mm

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Geography

Region : Continental

Population

Population of over 1 billion and pop. density of 350 per km2

This creates a huge demand for food which has resulted in intensive subsistence farming

Half of these subsistence farms are less than half a hectare

No land is wasted as a result

• Double cropping is practiced
• Roads are very narrow
• Fields usually don't have boundaries

Rice is the most common output of these intensive farms as it is a high-yield crop, so it is suited to feeding large quantities of people

Rice is grown on 25% of India's landmass and is planted and harvested by hand on small farms

• The high population density benefits this by providing a large and willing workforce

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Region: Continental

India's population is increasing at 2% per year creating a need for increased food supplies – The Green Revolution was a policy supported by the Indian government in response to this

• Started in the late 1960's
• Introduced genetically modified plant breeding producing new varieties of rice and wheat
• Introduced genetically modified plant breeding producing new varieties of rice and wheat
• This allowed India's food production to outpace population growth – by 2000, India became a net exporter of food (more food exported than imported)

Negatives of the Green Revolution

• Overproduction of crops led to market prices falling
• Job losses due to mechanisation
• Small-scale farmers couldn't compete with large-scale farmers

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Region : Continental

Fishing

Traditionally underdeveloped due to the lack of capital fishermen have

There are 300,000 fishing boats in India - only 17% are mechanised

Up until 1995 only one-third of India's water were fished commercially

This has since risen as the government offer subsidies to fishermen who purchase motorised fishing vessels

• This has led to an increase in large, mechanised fishing vessels
• Annual fish catches are constantly rising as a result - now around 4 million tonnes
• 40% of India's 6 million fishermen now work full time as fishermen

Cochin, in the south-west region of Kerala is the most important fishing port with common catches including shark, tuna and mackerel

Aquaculture is encouraged by the Indian government with the farming of shrimp being a prominent export resulting from aquaculture

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Geography

Region: Continental

Secondary Economic Activities

This sector accounts for 17% of the workforce in India. India ranks 14th in the world for industrial output.

Manufacturing

When India gained independence from Britain in 1947 only 2% of Indians worked in manufacturing

This figure has risen rapidly since then to become the 14th largest manufacturing country – if this growth continues India will rival manufacturing giants such as the USA

Manufacturing provides a valuable domestic market for agricultural produce

• Textile industries provide a market for cotton, silk and wool
• The textile industry accounts for 30% of all manufacturing output in India
• Tea plantations in India sell a majority of their produce to local tea processing plants that then generate 13% of the value of the country's exports

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Region : Continental

Agricultural industries provide most of the products needed in Indian agriculture

• Products include chemicals, fertilisers, irrigation pumps, machinery
• This has become more important since the introduction of the Green Revolution in the 1960's

India has a variety of industries

• Ranges from traditional such as iron, steel and textile to new modern information technology and pharmaceutical firms
• These industries employ millions of people and are crucial to the economy in India
• The most important industries are small-labour intensive industries such as jewellery making
• The employment these labour-intensive industries offer help to prevent rural to urban migration and the resulting uncontrolled growth of cities

Despite government efforts to spread the influence of industry, it remains concentrated on four main areas

• Kolkata in the North
• Mumbai and Ahmedabad in the West
• Chennai/Bangalore in the Southeast

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Geography

Region : Continental

Kolkata

• Many traditional industries such as textiles, clothing, iron and steel

• The area has natural resources of iron ore and coal which favours traditional heavy industries such as iron and steel

Mumbai

• Many foreign owned electronic and pharmaceutical companies

• Most goods produced are for export

• Centre of the Bollywood movie industry, making up to 400 films a year

Ahmedabad

• Wide variety of industries including food processing, textiles, chemicals and engineering

Chennai/Bangalore

• An industrial zone is centred around this region

• Chennai has textiles, car assembly and light engineering

• Bangalore as hundreds of software companies e.g. Intel who have outsourced to India for cheaper labour

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Region : Continental

Figure 5: Industrial zones in India

Factors that affect Manufacturing

Local Resources

Presence of iron ore and coal deposits in northern India is a major influence on the development of iron and steel related engineering industries in areas such as Kolkata

• Steel mulls have been built close to coal and iron ore mines
• Reduces the cost of transporting bulky raw materials
• India is now the 5th biggest producer of steel

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Region : Continental

Agricultural produce such as tea and cotton has fuelled the development of industries such as tea processing and textiles

• Tea processing = 13% of India's exports
• Textiles is the largest industry in India and accounts for 30% of industrial output

India's population of 1 billion people is its most valuable resource

• Provides a huge domestic market and labour force for industry
• The English-speaking population has attracted large American and European companies, like Intel, who outsource to India for the extremely cheap labour
• Highly skilled Indian workers are being paid one-eight of similar European workers with many telesales and customer service companies taking advantage of this to boost profits

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Geography

Region : Continental

Government Policies

The Indian government saw the need to move away from expensive manufactured imports and made efforts to encourage industrial growth in India

Agri-industries were promoted

• These included the manufacturing of chemical fertilisers and farm machinery
• Aided by the Green Revolution which required the use of these products

Labour-intensive craft industries

• Jewellery and leather making were encouraged in small towns and rural locations
• Helped to reduce migration to large urban areas

Special economic zones

• These were set up in areas such as Bangalore and included software parks
• Tax breaks and infrastructure such as purpose-built factories were used to attract foreign multi-national companies to these locations

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Region: Continental

Geography

Higher education

• India now has twice as many university graduates as the USA and Canada combined

• 40% of graduates specialise in science, information technology and engineering

• This was also a reason for industries such as Microsoft to open factories in India

Figure 6: Location of industries in India

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Geography

Region : Continental

Tertiary Economic Activities

Tertiary sector in India is underdeveloped. Most local people don't have access to basic needs such as food or shelter so services such as healthcare and education are out of reach for most families. Large cities are different however as people living here tend to be wealthier so services are widely available.

Tourism

Tourism in India has grown rapidly in recent years and is now among the visited destinations in the world.

Factors that affect Tourism

1 Landscape

Himalaya mountains in the North are one of India's greatest assets in terms of tourism

• Kashmir region in the north-west provides activities such as trekking, climbing and white-water rafting

Mountains in the north-east of the country contain tea plantations and towns called 'hill stations' on the lower slopes e.g. Darjeeling

• These were set up during British rule to offer the ruling elite an escape from excessive summer heat
• They are now used as high-class tourist resorts

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Geography

Region: Continental

The Western Ghats attract growing numbers of eco-tourists who go on safari tours in the large national parks and wildlife reserves in the area

• Eco-tourism involves the observation of wild plants and animals without disturbing their natural habitat

India's coastline attracts people to areas such as Goa in the south

• A mean temperature of 28°C attracts people to the sandy beaches in the area
• The warm, clear water is also perfect for scuba diving and snorkelling

2 Cultural Heritage

India possesses a rich and varied heritage based on Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh and Muslim beliefs

A variety of temples and festivals attract huge numbers of heritage tourists e.g. Taj Mahal

Some tourists attend yoga and meditation centres in cities such as Cochinhal

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Region: Continental

Geography

Government Involvement

Government actively supports tourism

• 'Incredible India' marketing campaign

Tax breaks are offered to Indian travel agents, hotel owners and private tour operators

Medical tourism is also promoted

• Medical companies in India and international medical insurers work together to arrange for foreigners to receive treatment in India at affordable prices – much cheaper than their home country

• Up to 150,000 people now travel to India for medical treatment annually

• Most of these 'medical tourists' come from oil-rich middle-eastern countries

• Treatments range from heart surgery to hair transplants

Importance of Tourism to India

Labour-intensive activity employing 20 million Indians

• Some directly e.g. tourist offices, hotels

• Some indirectly from spin-off activities e.g. building hotels, making souvenirs

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Region: Continental

Incoming foreign currency helps to boost India's balance of trade

• In 2009, 5 million tourists spent the equivalent of $12 billion

• This money helps to pay for foreign imports and is invaluable to the economy

• Tourism is the second largest earner of foreign exchange

Tourism benefits regions that would otherwise be unproductive

• Himalayan and Kashmir regions benefit considerably due to the need for mountain guides, mountain lodges etc

• These areas would otherwise be abandoned and unused

Figure 7: Taj Mahal

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Region: Continental

Transport

Transport in India is poor by European standards but have improved since independence from Britain in 1947

India's state-run railway network is one of the largest in the world – 64,000km of track

• Most goods are transported by rail around India

• Rapid commuter systems are important in cities such as Kolkata, where the country's first metro system opened in 1984

The rapidly emerging economy in India has led to a huge increase in car ownership

• On average 1.6 million new cars are bought every year

As a result, road transport accounts for the travel of 60% of passengers in India

• This puts an increased importance on India's roads

• India has 2 million km of road with 65,000km of that classified as highway – in comparison Ireland has 5,306km of roads and 916km of motorway

• However, less than half of India's roads are properly surfaced and a quarter of the 600,000 villages in India have no direct road links – this is a huge challenge going forward

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Region: Continental

Sea transport includes ports at Mumbai and Chennai

• This accounts for 95% of India's imports and exports

Large airports are located in Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata and Chennai

• Air India is the leading airline in the country

• These airports are playing an increasingly vital role as the number of international visitors continues to rise

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Geography

Region: Continental

Human Processes

Population Dynamics

1.2 billion people – second most populated country after China

• This will reach 2 billion by 2040 if current growth rate continues

India experiences a natural increase in population

• Birth rate of 22 per 1,000
• Families are seen as a blessing in Indian culture
• Poor people need children to help farm the land and to care for them in old age
• Death rates have fallen gradually to 6 per 1,000
• Sanitation and healthcare facilities have improved which results in longer life expectancy

Many problems exist with this natural increase including pressure on food supplies/farmland and unemployment

The government have created incentives to try reduce birth rates

• Family planning clinics and birth control education sessions for women
• Some government schemes have also included offering men a radio or a gun licence who agree to undergo a vasectomy

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Geography

Region : Continental

Population Density

High population density

• Lower courses of major river valleys e.g. Ganges – Brahmaputra contains 1,000 per km2. This flat plain consists of alluvial soil and provides a big water supply – ideal conditions for intensive subsistence farming that can produce two crops a year

• Coastal plains near Western and Eastern Ghats – between 500-1,000 people per km2. Productive areas of commercial and intensive subsistence farming

• Hinterlands of cities e.g. Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi exceed 1,000 people per km2 as rural to urban migration increases

• Cities e.g. Kolkata 23,000 per km2

Low population density

• Mountainous areas e.g. Himalayas sustain very little life – rocky slopes, low temperatures, high altitude

• Arid (dry) conditions e.g. Thar desert – low rainfall hinders agriculture and the production of food in the area

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Geography

Region : Continental

Religion

Religion is a major part of people's identity in India

The major religion is Hinduism with 80% of people practicing this religion, which as a huge effect on the political, social and economic life of the country – see Caste System below

13% of people are Muslim – the second largest religion

The Hindu religion has had the biggest impact on life in India

• Many Hindus are vegetarian – influences agriculture as farming is more focused on crop growing

• Cows are sacred – they can provide milk and pull carts but cannot be killed. Overgrazing by these animals contributes to soil erosion and mudslides. Methane gas produced by the cows also contributes to global warming

The caste system

• Seeks to divide society into segregated social classes (castes), defined by the type of work each member does

• Brahmins – priests and other high-ranking officials

• Dalits – 'untouchables' make up 15% of this system – carry out 'unclean' work such as sweeping streets

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Region: Continental

• The caste system exerts a strong influence in rural area however it is frowned upon by the Indian government and is not as strong in large urban areas such as Kolkata or Mumbai

Pakistan

• After British rule ended the region was divided in two – Muslim state of Pakistan and the Hindu dominated India

• During this time 12 million people moved to live in their area of faith – the largest migration of people in history

• Tension still exists between the two regions – in 2002, 2,000 people were killed in rioting which started after 58 Hindus were burned to death on a train in Godhra, north-west India

• This was blamed on a Muslim mob

• Tensions still run high over the ownership of the Kashmir state on the border

  • It was divided under Indian independence in 1947 with 65% ruled by India and 35% by Pakistan

  • Pakistan believes it should have full control of the region as it has a majority Islamic population – two-thirds

• This tension is also aided by differences in language

  • Hindi is the official language but other groups dispute this

  • 18 languages are recognised by the government with only 3% of people speaking English – but English is widely used in the business world

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Urban Development/Growth of Kolkata

Approx 30% of India's population live in cities. Most of the country's wealth is located here. Conurbations (when several towns or cities merge) are common and due to high population density, people generally live in poor conditions. Case Study below is for the question 'The boundaries of a city have expanded over time'

Case Study: Growth of Kolkata

• Kolkata is a long, narrow conurbation, stretching along the banks of the Hooghly River – distributary of River Ganges in East India

• Home to 16 million people – India's 3rd largest city

Growth of Kolkata

17th Century

• British colonial rulers began to develop Calcutta (now Kolkata) as a port, defence site and administration centre

• Marshes along either side of the city were cleared so that government buildings could be constructed

• Became an important railway and textile-making centre

• These developments attracted many migrant workers who livid in unplanned and rapidly growing shanty towns (bustees)

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Region : Continental

After independence in 1947

• Indian government promoted industrial development and improved transport infrastructure in Kolkata

• This drew more migrants to the city causing it to expand further

• Kolkata became the capital of the state of West Bengal which attracted educated migrants looking for employment in the bureaucracy system in Kolkata

Green Revolution in the 1960's

• Led to farm mechanisation, lower crop prices and rural unemployment throughout India

• Rural to urban migration was boosted as a result and added to the growth of already rapidly expanding bustees on the outskirt of the city

21st Century

• Rapid growth still happening today due to economic development

• I.T and related industries attract large numbers of workers to the city

• Kolkata now extends for 50km along the banks of the River Hooghly and growth is likely to continue for years to come

City of contrasts

• Rapid growth means that high-rise buildings and industrial areas often exist next to bustees

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Region : Continental

• The CBD (Central Business District) has the highest concentration of high-rise buildings

• It is located around a green area which contains examples of British rule such as cricket grounds, a gold course and large racecourse

• The GPO and Law Courts are located here

• In contrast to the CBD, 5,000 shanty towns/bustees exist around the city

• They house more than 4 million people living in unplanned accommodation made from timber, iron and plastic

• Most bustees lack basic services such as sewage and running water

• During monsoon rains, sewage can be washed out from open drains and run into people's shacks – this increases the risk of diseases such as typhoid and cholera