Foreign Policy Pre World War Two

If there is one set of notes that will greatly aid your essays on the Second World War in any way, it is these notes. Below are several subsections that detail key points/concepts relating to foreign policy approaches from 1936-39 before the Second World War started. They will provide key information that you can use to pad your essays, making them stronger and more detailed.

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The British Policy of Appeasement

• Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain primarily advocated the British policy of appeasement during the 1930s. It aimed to maintain peace in Europe by making concessions to Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime.
• This policy emerged from the widespread desire to avoid another devastating conflict like World War I. Britain, still recovering from the Great Depression, was unprepared for war both economically and militarily.
• Key events showcasing appeasement include the signing of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935, which allowed Germany to expand its navy to 35% of the size of the British fleet.
• Additionally, Britain and France did not intervene when Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland in 1936, despite it being a direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles. Critics argue that appeasement emboldened Hitler, making him believe that Britain and France would not stop his expansionist policies.
• Chamberlain believed that satisfying some of Hitler's demands would prevent a larger conflict. This belief was exemplified in the Munich Agreement of 1938, where Britain and France allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia, thinking it would satisfy Hitler's territorial ambitions.
• However, appeasement ultimately failed as it did not curb Hitler's aggression but rather encouraged it, leading to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.

"An appeaser is one who feeds a crocodile, hoping it will eat him last." - Winston Churchill

The End of Versailles with the Rhineland

• The remilitarisation of the Rhineland on March 7, 1936, marked a significant step in Hitler's foreign policy, effectively ending the post-World War I settlement imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.

• The treaty had demilitarised the Rhineland, creating a buffer zone intended to prevent German aggression toward France and Belgium. Hitler's move violated both the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties of 1925.

  • The German reoccupation of the Rhineland was a calculated risk by Hitler. The German military was not strong enough to withstand a French counterattack, but the lack of resistance from France and Britain emboldened Hitler.
  • France, experiencing political instability and economic troubles, was reluctant to act without British support. Following its policy of appeasement, Britain viewed the Rhineland as part of Germany and saw the reoccupation as a reasonable action.

• The remilitarisation had profound implications. It shifted the balance of power in Europe, undermined the credibility of the League of Nations, and encouraged Hitler to pursue further territorial expansion.

• The lack of response from the Western powers signalled to Hitler that they were unwilling to enforce the terms of Versailles, thereby weakening their diplomatic position.

"The 48 hours after the march into the Rhineland were the most nerve-racking in my life." - Adolf Hitler

The Hossbach Conference

• The Hossbach Conference, held on November 5, 1937, was a critical meeting in which Hitler outlined his aggressive foreign policy goals to his top military and political leaders. Colonel Friedrich Hossbach recorded the minutes of this meeting, which revealed Hitler's plan for expansion in Europe, emphasising the need for Lebensraum (living space) for the German people.

• Hitler believed that Germany needed to secure its future through territorial expansion, primarily at the expense of Austria and Czechoslovakia. He argued that the country's economic problems could only be solved by acquiring more land and resources. The timing for such expansion was crucial, according to Hitler, as he anticipated that Germany would be ready for war by 1943-1945.

  

• The Hossbach Conference highlighted Hitler's willingness to use force to achieve his objectives, a stark departure from diplomatic methods. It also indicated that Hitler saw conflict with Britain and France as inevitable but believed they would not interfere with his initial plans.

• The meeting marked a turning point, as it showed a clear and deliberate path towards war, reinforcing the militaristic and expansionist nature of Nazi foreign policy.

"Germany's problem could only be solved by means of force, and this was never without attendant risk." - Adolf Hitler

Anschluss

• Anschluss refers to the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany on March 12, 1938. This event was a pivotal moment in Hitler's expansionist policy and a clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles, which prohibited the unification of Austria and Germany.

  

• Hitler, born in Austria, had long advocated for the unification of all German-speaking people under one Reich. The political situation in Austria in the 1930s, marked by economic difficulties and political instability, created an environment conducive to Nazi influence. Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg initially resisted Nazi pressure, but after a failed attempt to hold a plebiscite, he was forced to resign.

• German troops marched into Austria without facing any resistance, and the Anschluss was confirmed by a plebiscite held under Nazi supervision, where 99.7% of Austrians purportedly voted in favour.

• The Anschluss was presented as the fulfilment of a long-standing nationalistic aspiration, but it was also a strategic move for Hitler. It provided Germany with valuable resources, a strategic position in Central Europe, and further demonstrated the weakness of the international community's resolve to oppose Nazi aggression.

• The annexation of Austria was met with little protest from other European powers. Britain and France, still following appeasement, did not intervene, further emboldening Hitler to pursue his expansionist policies.

"The German question can be solved only by way of force, and this is never without risk." - Adolf Hitler

The Sudetenland

• The Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia with a significant German-speaking population, became a focal point of Hitler's expansionist aims in 1938. The Nazi propaganda machine highlighted the alleged mistreatment of ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, creating a pretext for intervention. Hitler demanded the region's annexation, claiming it was necessary to protect the rights of the German minority.
• Konrad Henlein, leader of the Sudeten German Party, was instrumental in escalating tensions, demanding autonomy for the Sudeten Germans and aligning closely with Nazi objectives. The situation in the Sudetenland brought Europe to the brink of war, as Czechoslovakia was allied with France and the Soviet Union, both of which were prepared to support it against German aggression.
• The crisis culminated in the Munich Conference in September 1938, where Britain, France, Germany, and Italy decided the fate of the Sudetenland without Czechoslovakian representation. The Munich Agreement allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland, a decision intended to avoid war but seen as a betrayal by the Czechoslovak government.
• The acquisition of the Sudetenland without military conflict was a significant victory for Hitler. It not only strengthened Germany strategically by providing defensible borders and industrial resources but also showcased the impotence of the Western powers in curbing Nazi ambitions.

"We have sustained a defeat without a war." - Winston Churchill

The Munich Conference

• The Munich Conference, held on September 29-30, 1938, was a high-stakes diplomatic meeting involving Britain, France, Germany, and Italy.

  • The conference aimed to address the Sudetenland crisis and prevent the outbreak of another European war. The key figures were Neville Chamberlain (Britain), Édouard Daladier (France), Adolf Hitler (Germany), and Benito Mussolini (Italy).

• The resulting Munich Agreement permitted Germany to annex the Sudetenland. Chamberlain famously returned to Britain, declaring he had secured "peace for our time." The agreement is often cited as the epitome of the appeasement policy, which aimed to maintain peace by conceding to Hitler's demands. The decision was made without consulting Czechoslovakia, whose fate was decided by other powers.

• The Munich Conference is historically significant for several reasons. It marked the height of the appeasement policy and demonstrated the reluctance of Britain and France to confront Hitler militarily. The agreement temporarily avoided war but at the cost of emboldening Hitler, who saw it as a green light for further territorial expansion.

• In hindsight, the Munich Agreement is widely regarded as a failed act of diplomacy. It did not prevent war but rather postponed it, allowing Germany to strengthen its position. The conference is often cited as a lesson in the dangers of appeasement and the need for a firm stance against aggression.

"Peace for our time." - Neville Chamberlain

The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, also known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, was signed on August 23, 1939, between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. This treaty stunned the world because it was an agreement between two ideologically opposed regimes: Hitler's fascist Germany and Stalin's communist Soviet Union.

Terms and Secret Protocols

• The pact had both public and secret components. Publicly, Germany and the Soviet Union agreed not to attack each other or support any third party that might do so. This agreement ensured that both countries could avoid a two-front war, which had been a significant concern for Germany.
• The secret protocols, which were not revealed until after World War II, divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence.
• According to these protocols, Poland, the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), Finland, and parts of Romania were divided between the two powers. This division laid the groundwork for the invasions that would soon follow.

Strategic Motivations

• For Hitler, the pact provided security on the Eastern Front, allowing him to focus on his military campaigns in Western Europe without fear of Soviet intervention.
• It also ensured a steady supply of raw materials from the Soviet Union, crucial for sustaining Germany's war effort.
• For Joseph Stalin, the pact bought time to build up the Soviet military, which the purges of the late 1930s had weakened.
• The territorial gains outlined in the secret protocols also expanded the Soviet sphere of influence and provided a buffer zone against potential German aggression.

Impact and Consequences

• The immediate consequence of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was the invasion of Poland.

• On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland from the west, and on September 17, the Soviet Union invaded from the east. The coordinated invasions led to Poland's swift defeat and partition, marking the beginning of World War II.

  

• The pact shocked and dismayed Britain and France, which had hoped to ally with the Soviet Union against Germany. The agreement also demonstrated Stalin's foreign policy's pragmatic rather than ideological nature.

• The pact remained in effect until June 22, 1941, when Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. This betrayal ended the non-aggression agreement and brought the Soviet Union into the war on the Allies' side.

"We have guaranteed to each other political protection for the future, and we have concluded an agreement to that effect." - Adolf Hitler

"It seems to me that the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact has been the basis of the rapid and successful German advance." - Joseph Goebbels

Historical Significance

• The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was a pivotal moment in 20th-century history.
• It allowed Hitler to initiate World War II with the invasion of Poland and demonstrated the lengths to which totalitarian regimes would go to achieve their strategic objectives.
• The pact also revealed the fragility of international alliances and the complex nature of geopolitical strategy on the eve of the world's most devastating conflict.