The Civil War

Knowledge of the Irish Civil War is very important when answering essay questions on the topic of the Treaty, primarily because it was a key consequence of the controversial negotiations. Below is a selection of key events from the Civil War that you may or may not be familiar with. The goal is to break down the events of the Civil War into bite-size chunks to aid your study.

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1. The Assault on the Four Courts (June 1922)

• The Irish Civil War began with the assault on the Four Courts in Dublin on 28 June 1922. The Four Courts, a significant government building, had been occupied by anti-Treaty forces, led by Rory O'Connor, since April 1922.

• These forces refused to recognise the authority of the Provisional Government and were determined to continue fighting for an Irish Republic.

  

• In response, the government, under pressure from the British, launched an attack on the Four Courts using artillery borrowed from the British army.

• The assault marked the beginning of open hostilities between pro- and anti-Treaty forces.

• After several days of fighting, the Four Courts fell to the Provisional Government's forces, signalling the start of a brutal civil war that would tear the country apart over the following year.

2. The Battle of Dublin (June-July 1922)

• Following the assault on the Four Courts, fighting quickly spread throughout Dublin, leading to a broader conflict known as the Battle of Dublin.
• From late June into early July 1922, Dublin was the scene of intense urban warfare as pro-Treaty forces, now called the National Army, sought to drive anti-Treaty forces out of the city.
  • Street battles, sniper fire, and artillery bombardments devastated large parts of the city. The National Army, better equipped and organised, gradually gained the upper hand, but the fighting was fierce and resulted in significant casualties on both sides.
  • The fall of Dublin to pro-Treaty forces was a decisive moment in the early stages of the civil war, allowing the Provisional Government to consolidate its power and extend its control over other parts of the country.

3. The Execution of Republican Leaders (December 1922)

• One of the most controversial and defining moments of the Civil War was the execution of anti-Treaty leaders by the Provisional Government.
• In December 1922, following the assassination of TD Seán Hales by anti-Treaty forces, the government responded by executing four prominent anti-Treaty prisoners—Rory O'Connor, Liam Mellows, Richard Barrett, and Joseph McKelvey—who had been held in custody since the fall of the Four Courts.
• These executions were carried out without trial and were intended to serve as a deterrent against further violence.
• However, instead of quelling the resistance, the executions intensified the conflict, deepening the animosity between the two sides.
• The use of executions by the government was widely condemned and contributed to the brutal nature of the civil war.

4. The Fall of Cork (August 1922)

• The fall of Cork in August 1922 was a critical turning point in the Irish Civil War.

  • Cork, a stronghold of the anti-Treaty forces, was strategically important due to its size and its port, which was vital for supplies.
  • The National Army launched a major offensive to capture the city, combining sea landings and coordinated attacks. Despite initial resistance, the anti-Treaty forces could not hold Cork and were forced to retreat.

• The fall of Cork marked the collapse of organised anti-Treaty resistance in the south of Ireland, forcing the anti-Treaty IRA to shift to guerrilla tactics.

• The loss of Cork was a severe blow to the anti-Treaty cause, significantly weakening their position in the war.

5. The Death of Michael Collins (August 1922)

• The death of Michael Collins on 22 August 1922 was one of the most significant events of the Irish Civil War.
• Collins, a leading figure in the Provisional Government and a key architect of the Anglo-Irish Treaty was killed in an ambush at Béal na Bláth in County Cork.
• Collins had been on a tour of the south, attempting to rally support for the Provisional Government and restore order in areas still controlled by anti-Treaty forces.
• His death was a devastating blow to the pro-Treaty side, as Collins was seen as a unifying figure capable of leading the new state through its turbulent early years.
• The loss of Collins intensified the conflict, further polarising the factions and prolonging the civil war.

6. The Munster Republic and Guerrilla Warfare (September 1922)

• Following the fall of Cork, the anti-Treaty forces retreated into the countryside, where they declared a Munster Republic and adopted guerrilla tactics similar to those used during the War of Independence.
• Operating from rural strongholds, the anti-Treaty IRA conducted ambushes, sabotage, and hit-and-run attacks against the National Army.
• This phase of the civil war was marked by brutal reprisals on both sides, with civilians often caught in the crossfire.
• The guerrilla warfare dragged on into the winter of 1922-1923, but the anti-Treaty forces, lacking resources and widespread support, were gradually worn down by the better-equipped National Army.
• While symbolically important, the Munster Republic was never able to establish effective control and ultimately collapsed under military pressure.

7. The Killings at Ballyseedy (March 1923)

• The Ballyseedy Massacre in March 1923 is one of the most infamous atrocities of the Irish Civil War.
• Nine anti-Treaty prisoners were tied to a landmine by National Army soldiers near Ballyseedy, County Kerry, and the mine was detonated, killing eight of the prisoners.
• One prisoner, Stephen Fuller, miraculously survived the explosion and later recounted the horrific event.
• The killings at Ballyseedy were part of a broader pattern of reprisals carried out by the National Army in Kerry, where anti-Treaty guerrillas were particularly active.
• The incident exemplified the brutal and often lawless nature of the civil war, where both sides engaged in acts of violence that left deep scars on the nation's collective memory.

8. The Ceasefire and End of the Civil War (April-May 1923)

• By the spring of 1923, the anti-Treaty forces were exhausted, their numbers depleted, and their leaders captured or on the run.
• Realising that continued resistance was futile, Liam Lynch, the anti-Treaty IRA Chief of Staff, issued orders to his forces to cease offensive operations in April 1923.
• Following Lynch's death in an ambush, Frank Aiken, who succeeded him as Chief of Staff, declared a ceasefire on 30 April 1923 and issued a formal order to dump arms on 24 May 1923. This effectively brought an end to the Irish Civil War.
• The anti-Treaty forces did not formally surrender, but their decision to "dump arms" rather than continue fighting marked the conclusion of the conflict.
• The war left the country deeply divided and physically and emotionally scarred, with the legacies of the conflict shaping Irish politics for decades to come.