Urban Poverty & Drugs and Crime

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Urban Poverty and Riots

The Civil Rights Act's passing in 1965 coincided with President Johnson's Great Society and War on Poverty legislation. These laws significantly expanded the federal government's efforts to combat poverty, especially in urban areas with high concentrations of poverty and disadvantage. However, before these programs could be fully implemented, riots erupted in Watts, Los Angeles, in August 1965.

The riots lasted six days and were sparked by an altercation between Marquette Frye, an African American man, and a white police officer. The violence resulted in 34 deaths (all African Americans), 4,000 arrests, and property damage exceeding $35 million. Race riots, primarily involving young, poor African Americans, became a recurring issue in the following years. In 1966, there were 38 riots nationwide, and in 1967, 167 riots occurred, including deadly ones in Detroit and Newark. The widespread sense of lawlessness prompted many middle-class Americans to vote for Republicans who promised a return to "law and order."

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Urban Problems: Causes of Unrest

• Poverty: Despite post-war economic expansion, 22% of the U.S. population lived in poverty by 1960.
• Concentrated Populations: In 1960, African Americans comprised 25% of Chicago's population but occupied only 4% of the city's space. This overcrowding led to anger and resentment, a pattern seen in many U.S. urban centres.
• Poor Housing: Many African Americans lived in government-built tenement towers known as the "projects", which were typically poorly maintained.
• Redlining: Banks and retailers denied services to minority neighbourhoods, resulting in lower living standards and fewer economic opportunities compared to white neighbourhoods. These poverty-stricken areas became hotbeds for crime, including organised drug dealing.
• Suburban Flight: From the 1950s onward, affluent middle-class families moved to the suburbs, taking businesses with them and reducing urban tax revenues. This migration diminished employment opportunities and economic activities in inner cities, leading to high levels of welfare dependency.
• Ghettos: Many African Americans moved to northern and western cities to escape Southern poverty and racism. By the 1960s, they comprised about 25% of the population in major cities. However, they continued to face discrimination and high unemployment rates due to a lack of education and job skills.
• Tensions with Police: Frequent altercations between Black youths and predominantly white police forces often escalated into violence. Police overreactions fuelled urban riots, highlighting the deep-seated mistrust between communities and law enforcement.

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War on Poverty

President Johnson set up a commission to investigate the riots, leading to the Kerner Commission's conclusion that poverty was a root cause and that the U.S. was becoming divided into two unequal societies. The commission recommended social welfare programs to assist African Americans and other impoverished groups. Johnson incorporated these recommendations into his War on Poverty.

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Key Programs:

• The Office of Economic Opportunity coordinated various anti-poverty initiatives.
• Head Start provided preschool programs for poor children.
• Job Corps offered skills training in inner cities.
• Community Action Programs opened offices to advise and run local economic activity efforts.

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Drugs and Crime

Violent Crimes

Crime became a major problem in the U.S. from the 1960s onward, driven by factors like poverty, unemployment, discrimination, community anger, and drug addiction. Violent crimes, such as murders, assaults, and rapes, became especially prevalent in inner-city areas with high poverty rates. These crimes were often associated with young, Black, unemployed males, a stereotype that fuelled further racial tensions. The number of violent crimes reported to police per 1,000 people increased significantly over the decades:

• 1960: 5.9
• 1970: 14.3
• 1980: 22.8
• 1990: 19.7

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Drug Crime

The illegal drug trade was one of the biggest drivers of crime rates in the U.S. from the 1960s onwards. The U.S. became the largest consumer of illegal drugs in the world. Starting in the late 1950s and growing in the 1960s, drugs became popularised in mainstream culture, often glamorised by music groups and celebrities. As the counter-culture movement gained strength, drug use became more common. Criminal gangs made millions by smuggling and dealing illegal drugs, leading to increased violence as gangs fought to protect their territories from rivals.

By the 1970s, drugs were linked to a significant percentage of crime:

• 50% of all murders

• 65% of robberies Politicians responded to the rising drug use and crime by declaring a "War on Drugs" in the 1970s. President Nixon led this initiative, significantly increasing resources for police and customs enforcement and implementing harsher penalties for drug-related offences. However, these measures often resulted in racial biases. African Americans, who were more likely to use and sell cheaper drugs like crack cocaine, received longer sentences compared to whites who used powder cocaine. By the 1990s, although African Americans only made up 13% of regular drug users, they accounted for:

• 35% of drug arrests

• 55% of drug convictions

• 74% of prison sentences for drug possession

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Civil Rights in the 1970s and 1980s in a Few Key Points

After 1965, the Civil Rights Movement lacked a single identifiable leader following Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination in 1968. Nonetheless, there were significant advances for African Americans:

• Affirmative Action: Federal policies promoted African Americans in education and business, ensuring a certain percentage of places in universities and federal jobs.
• Reverend Jesse Jackson: Ran for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988, becoming the first African American to win a state primary. His activism helped solidify African American support for the Democratic Party and promoted policies benefiting the Black community.
• Supreme Court Support: Despite challenges, the Supreme Court broadly upheld civil rights policies, leading to increased minority access to higher education. However, several developments in the post-1960s era reversed some gains:

1. War on Drugs: Disproportionately affected African American communities.
2. Backlash Against Civil Rights: Some segments of the white population opposed civil rights programs, especially affirmative action, aiding the election of conservative Republicans.
3. Cutting Welfare Programs: Funding for Great Society programs was reduced during the 1970s economic recession.
4. Ronald Reagan's Policies: Reagan rolled back welfare and civil rights measures from the 1960s, focusing on reducing anti-poverty spending and appointing conservative judges to the Supreme Court. These judges aimed to overturn liberal rulings but did not reverse landmark decisions like Brown v. Board of Education.

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