Background to Racial Conflict - Jim Crow and Early Rracism

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The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement

The Civil Rights Movement in the United States was a decades-long struggle by African Americans to end legalised racial discrimination, disenfranchisement, and racial segregation. The movement has its roots in the post-Civil War era but gained significant momentum in the mid-20th century.

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Key Background Points

• After the Civil War, the Reconstruction era attempted to integrate formerly enslaved people into society. The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments abolished slavery, granted citizenship, and protected voting rights, respectively.
• Post-Reconstruction, Southern states implemented Jim Crow laws to enforce racial segregation and disenfranchise Black Americans.
• From 1916 to 1970, millions of African Americans moved from the rural South to urban centres in the North and West, seeking better economic opportunities and escaping segregation.

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Early 20th Century Developments

• The National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People, founded in 1909, fought for civil rights primarily through legal challenges.
• A cultural, social, and artistic explosion in the 1920s that celebrated Black culture and challenged racial stereotypes.

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Mid-20th Century Catalysts

• World War II: Black Americans served in the military and worked in war industries, leading to increased demands for civil rights upon their return.
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954): The Supreme Court ruling declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional, galvanising the movement.
• Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956): Sparked by Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her bus seat, this boycott led to a Supreme Court ruling that segregation on public buses was unconstitutional.

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Discrimination: Definition and Forms

Discrimination refers to the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, especially based on race, age, sex, or disability. In the context of the Civil Rights Movement, it primarily refers to racial discrimination against African Americans.

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Types of Discrimination

• Institutional Discrimination: Policies and practices within institutions (like schools, businesses, and government) that disproportionately harm certain racial groups.
• Interpersonal Discrimination: Direct, face-to-face discriminatory actions between individuals.
• Structural Discrimination: Systemic inequalities rooted in the operation of societal institutions, laws, and customs.

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Jim Crow Laws: What Were They?

Jim Crow laws were state and local statutes that legalised racial segregation. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these laws were in force until 1965 and were meant to marginalise African Americans by denying them equal opportunities and rights.

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Key Characteristics of Jim Crow Laws

• Segregation: Laws mandated the separation of races in public places such as schools, transportation, restrooms, restaurants, and drinking fountains.
• Voting Restrictions: Mechanisms like literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses were used to disenfranchise Black voters.
• Enforcement and Violence: Violations of Jim Crow laws were often met with harsh penalties, and extrajudicial violence, such as lynching, was used to enforce racial subordination.

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Key Quotes

"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere." - Martin Luther King Jr.

"Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." - Supreme Court, Brown v. Board of Education.

"We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools." - Martin Luther King Jr.

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Landmark Court Cases Related to the Civil Rights Movement

Several landmark court cases played pivotal roles in advancing civil rights and dismantling institutionalised segregation and discrimination in the United States.

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Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

• Background: This Supreme Court case upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation laws for public facilities under the doctrine of "separate but equal."
• Outcome: It legally sanctioned segregation and led to the proliferation of Jim Crow laws.

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Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

• Background: A consolidation of five cases challenging the legality of racial segregation in public schools.
• Outcome: The Supreme Court unanimously ruled that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, stating that;

"separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."

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Browder v. Gayle (1956)

• Background: This case arose from the Montgomery Bus Boycott, challenging the constitutionality of bus segregation.
• Outcome: The Supreme Court ruled that segregation on public buses was unconstitutional, effectively ending the bus boycott.

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Loving v. Virginia (1967)

• Background: This case challenged Virginia's laws prohibiting interracial marriage.
• Outcome: The Supreme Court ruled that state laws banning interracial marriage were unconstitutional, striking down such laws nationwide.

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Civil Rights Cases (1883) - Additional Background Context

• Background: A group of five cases that tested the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which prohibited racial discrimination in public accommodations.
• Outcome: The Supreme Court ruled that the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was unconstitutional, arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment did not authorise federal legislation against private racial discrimination.

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Test Yourself Questions

1. What were the primary goals of the Civil Rights Movement?

• To end legalised racial discrimination, disenfranchisement, and racial segregation.

2. What significant legal case declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional?

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

3. Name one type of discrimination and provide an example.

• Institutional discrimination; e.g., segregated schooling systems.

4. What were Jim Crow laws designed to do?

• Enforce racial segregation and disenfranchise Black Americans.

5. How did the Great Migration influence the Civil Rights Movement?

• It led to the growth of urban Black communities that became centers for political and social activism.

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