The Anglo-Irish Treaty CASE STUDY

Tensions and Turmoil Within the Irish Delegation

• The Irish delegation tasked with negotiating the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1921 was marked by significant internal tensions, which stemmed from differing views on the goals of the negotiation and the methods by which they should be achieved.
• The delegation, led by Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins, came with varying perspectives on the future of Ireland, and these differences became more pronounced as the negotiations progressed.
• One major source of tension was the divergence in priorities between Griffith and Collins.
• Griffith, who had long been a political leader advocating for Irish independence, was willing to consider dominion status within the British Empire as a stepping stone toward full independence.
• He believed that a pragmatic approach would yield the best possible outcome for Ireland under the circumstances.
• On the other hand, Collins, who was primarily known for his role as a revolutionary and military leader, was more concerned about securing tangible gains, such as a viable Irish state with real autonomy, even if that meant compromising on some nationalist ideals.
• Another source of tension was the pressure placed on the delegation by Éamon de Valera, who had remained in Ireland (this was a very controversial move, and will be discussed more below).
• De Valera had given the delegation instructions to seek external association rather than dominion status, a concept that was difficult for the delegates to articulate and explain to the British during the negotiations.
• This added stress to the already challenging task of negotiating with a highly experienced British delegation.
• The fact that the delegation members had to refer key decisions back to Dublin for approval also slowed down the negotiation process and exacerbated internal disagreements. It also undermined the legitimacy of the Irish delegation itself, a point that you can easily make in your essay.
• The differences in approach and the lack of a clear, unified strategy within the Irish delegation led to significant strain.
• As the negotiations reached their climax, the internal tensions contributed to the ultimate split within the Irish nationalist movement, particularly when the delegation agreed to terms that some members believed did not meet the aspirations of the Irish Republic. These tensions would later play a crucial role in the outbreak of the Irish Civil War.

De Valera's Decision Not to Go to London and the Controversies It Caused

• Éamon de Valera's decision not to personally attend the treaty negotiations in London was one of the most controversial and debated aspects of the Anglo-Irish Treaty process.
• As the President of the Irish Republic and the most senior figure in the nationalist movement, many expected De Valera to lead the delegation. However, his choice to remain in Dublin instead of going to London had significant implications.
• De Valera provided several reasons for his decision. He argued that the King, as the head of state, would not be attending the negotiations, and therefore, it was not appropriate for him to attend either.
• He also expressed concern that his presence might compromise the symbolic purity of the presidency, especially if the negotiations led to a compromise short of a full republic.
• De Valera believed that by staying in Dublin, he could monitor and manage the situation at home, particularly ensuring that the militant factions within the nationalist movement adhered to the truce and did not undermine the negotiation process.
• Additionally, he felt that if the talks failed, it would be less damaging for a moderate figure like Arthur Griffith to break them off rather than a perceived hardliner like himself.
• However, De Valera's decision was met with considerable controversy. Critics argued that as the leader of the Irish Republic, it was his duty to represent the nation at such a critical juncture.
• Some saw his absence as a failure to take responsibility for the outcome of the negotiations.
• The decision also placed an immense burden on the delegates, particularly Griffith and Michael Collins, who were left to negotiate with the British delegation without the direct input of their leader.
• De Valera's absence also led to confusion and miscommunication during the negotiations. The delegates in London had to refer major decisions back to Dublin for approval, which slowed down the process and created additional stress.
• Moreover, the concept of external association—which De Valera had championed—was difficult for the delegates to articulate and defend without his presence, leading to further complications.
• The controversy surrounding De Valera's decision not to attend the talks would have lasting repercussions. When the terms of the treaty were eventually revealed, De Valera opposed the agreement, arguing that it did not fulfil the aspirations of the Irish Republic.
• This opposition contributed to the deep divisions within the nationalist movement and ultimately led to the Irish Civil War (which is discussed in a separate selection of notes).

The Idea of a Boundary Commission and What the Negotiations Suggested Should Be Done with Ulster

• The issue of Ulster and its relationship with the rest of Ireland was one of the most contentious topics during the Anglo-Irish Treaty negotiations.
• The Government of Ireland Act 1920 had already established Northern Ireland as a separate entity with its own parliament, effectively partitioning the island of Ireland.
• However, the question of how to address the division of Ulster, particularly the six counties that made up Northern Ireland, remained a critical concern during the treaty talks.
• One of the key proposals to address this issue was the establishment of a Boundary Commission.
• The idea behind the Boundary Commission was to review and potentially alter the borders between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State based on the wishes of the local populations.
• The commission was intended to consider factors such as the economic viability of the regions and the religious and political identities of the inhabitants.
• The hope was that the commission could make adjustments to the boundary that would be more acceptable to both nationalists and unionists.
• The Irish delegation, particularly Michael Collins and Arthur Griffith, saw the Boundary Commission as a potential way to reduce the size of Northern Ireland by transferring predominantly nationalist areas, such as parts of Fermanagh and Tyrone, to the Irish Free State.
• This, they believed, could lead to a more favourable outcome for the nationalist cause, potentially making Northern Ireland less viable as a separate entity and increasing the likelihood of eventual reunification with the rest of Ireland.
• However, the British delegation, led by David Lloyd George, viewed the Boundary Commission more cautiously.
• While they were willing to agree to the commission as a means of addressing nationalist concerns, they were also determined to protect the integrity of Northern Ireland and ensure that any changes to the border would not significantly undermine the unionist majority.
• The British were keen to avoid any outcome that might destabilise Northern Ireland or lead to renewed conflict.
• The Boundary Commission was ultimately included in the Anglo-Irish Treaty as a compromise solution, but the specifics of its operation were left vague.
• The treaty stipulated that the commission would be set up to "determine in accordance with the wishes of the inhabitants, so far as may be compatible with economic and geographic conditions, the boundaries between Northern Ireland and the rest of Ireland." However, this ambiguity would later lead to significant disappointment and controversy.
• When the Boundary Commission eventually met in 1925, its recommendations fell far short of nationalist expectations.
• The commission proposed only minor adjustments to the border, leaving Northern Ireland largely intact.
• The outcome was seen as a betrayal by many in the Irish Free State and led to widespread disillusionment with the treaty settlement.
• The failure of the Boundary Commission to deliver meaningful change reinforced the permanence of partition and deepened the divisions between north and south.

The Position of Ireland Within the British Empire as Discussed

• One of the central issues during the Anglo-Irish Treaty negotiations was the position of Ireland within the British Empire. This question was crucial because it directly addressed the extent of Irish independence and sovereignty, two of the most important goals for the Irish delegation.
• The British government, led by David Lloyd George, was adamant that Ireland should remain part of the British Empire, albeit with a significant degree of self-governance.
• The British proposed that Ireland be granted dominion status similar to that of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
• Under dominion status, Ireland would have its own parliament and control over domestic affairs, but it would remain a part of the British Empire, with the British monarch as the head of state.
• For the Irish delegation, this proposal was deeply problematic. Many in the nationalist movement had fought for a fully independent Irish Republic, free from any ties to Britain.
• Dominion status, while offering considerable autonomy, still required Ireland to swear allegiance to the British Crown, which was unacceptable to many Irish republicans.
• Michael Collins and Arthur Griffith faced the difficult task of negotiating a compromise that would satisfy both the British demands for continued association and the Irish desire for independence.
• During the negotiations, the Irish delegation pushed for a form of external association, a concept developed by Éamon de Valera.
• External association suggested that Ireland could recognise the British monarch as the head of a commonwealth of nations while retaining full control over its internal and external affairs.
• This proposal aimed to maintain a symbolic connection to the British Empire without the legal and constitutional constraints of dominion status.
• However, the British were unwilling to accept external association, viewing it as too close to full independence and a threat to the integrity of the empire.
• Lloyd George insisted that dominion status was the only viable option, arguing that it provided a practical solution that preserved the essential unity of the empire while granting Ireland significant self-governance.
• In the end, the Irish delegation accepted dominion status as part of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, believing it to be the best possible outcome under the circumstances.
• The treaty stipulated that the Irish Free State would be established as a self-governing dominion within the British Commonwealth, with its own parliament and government.
• Members of the Irish parliament were required to take an oath of allegiance to the British Crown, a provision that would later become one of the most contentious aspects of the treaty.
• The decision to accept dominion status was a significant compromise for the Irish delegation and sparked deep divisions within the nationalist movement.
• While it secured a substantial degree of independence for Ireland, it also retained a symbolic and constitutional connection to the British Empire, falling short of the full republic that many had hoped for.
• These divisions would ultimately lead to the Irish Civil War, as factions within the nationalist movement disagreed over the terms of the treaty and the future direction of the Irish state.

Answering Some Key Questions

1. Why Was There Conflict Within the Irish Delegation?

• Members of the Irish delegation, particularly Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins, had differing views on what the negotiations should achieve.
• Griffith was more inclined to accept dominion status as a pragmatic step toward independence, while Collins was deeply concerned about securing tangible gains that would not betray the republican cause.
• Éamon de Valera's decision to remain in Ireland created additional tension, as the delegates had to frequently refer decisions back to him.
• De Valera's insistence on pushing for external association—a complex and vague concept—added further strain as the delegation struggled to articulate and defend this position in the negotiations.
• The delegation's instructions from Dublin were somewhat ambiguous, particularly concerning the limits of compromise. This lack of clarity created internal disagreements about how far they could go in negotiations without betraying the core ideals of the Irish Republic.
• The delegation members came from different backgrounds and had varying levels of experience and influence within the nationalist movement.
• These differences sometimes led to conflicting approaches to negotiation tactics and priorities, further contributing to internal discord.

2. What Did the British Offer With Regard to Ulster?

• The British offered the establishment of a Boundary Commission to review and potentially alter the borders between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State.
• The commission was supposed to take into account the wishes of the local population and economic and geographical considerations.
• The British made it clear that the unionist majority in Northern Ireland would be protected, and any boundary adjustments would not undermine the viability of Northern Ireland as a distinct political entity.
• While the British were open to the idea of adjusting the borders, they were adamant that the core of Northern Ireland would remain under British sovereignty, and any changes would be minor and would not threaten the existence of Northern Ireland.
• Despite discussions, the British ultimately treated the position of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom as largely non-negotiable, which limited the scope of any potential boundary changes and kept the region firmly under British control.

3. Why Did the British Keep Rejecting External Association?

• The British viewed external association as too close to full independence, which they feared could set a precedent for other dominions and colonies, potentially leading to the disintegration of the British Empire.
• External association was seen as a vague and poorly defined concept that lacked the clear legal and constitutional framework provided by dominion status. This uncertainty made the British uncomfortable with the idea.
• The British were insistent that any agreement must include a clear and unambiguous allegiance to the Crown, something external association did not guarantee. They saw this as essential to maintaining the symbolic unity of the Empire.
• By rejecting external association, the British aimed to maintain a stronger negotiating position, pushing the Irish delegation toward accepting dominion status, which would still keep Ireland within the British Commonwealth.

4. Why Did Griffith and Collins Want to Break Into Sub-Committees? How Important Was the Role of the Absent James Craig?

• Griffith and Collins suggested breaking into sub-committees to allow more focused discussions on specific contentious issues, such as the status of Ulster and the constitutional position of Ireland. This approach would enable them to work out details more efficiently without the broader, often contentious, discussions dominating the entire negotiation process.
• Sub-committees would allow for more practical and flexible negotiation tactics, enabling smaller groups to explore compromises on specific issues without the pressure of the full delegations present. It was a strategy to make progress on multiple fronts simultaneously.
• By breaking into sub-committees, Griffith and Collins hoped to reduce internal conflict within the Irish delegation by isolating specific issues and reducing the need for constant referral back to Dublin, which often caused delays and added stress.
• The absence of James Craig, the leader of the Ulster Unionists, was significant because it allowed the British delegation to negotiate without immediate pressure from the Ulster Unionists.
• Craig's absence meant that decisions could be made without directly involving the Ulster Unionist Party, giving the British more flexibility in what they could offer or agree to in the talks.
• However, it also meant that any agreement on Ulster would later need Craig's approval, complicating the implementation of any decisions made.